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THE 



PRE-COLUMBIAN 



DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 



THK NORTHMAN, 



TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ICELANDIC SAGAS. 



B. F. De COSTA. 



THIRD EDITION RKVISED. 




ALBANY, N. Y.: 

JOEL MDNSKLl's sons, PUBLISHERS. 

1901. 






.^ 



CONTENTS. 



I. Preface. 

II. General Introduction. — Historic Fancies; The Sea 

of Darkness; Juba's Expedition; Traditions; The 
Northmen; The Colonization of Iceland; The 
Papal Letters ; Settlement of Greenland ; Organi- 
zation of the Church; Monuments and Euins; 
Explorations in Greenland; The Decline of Green- 
land ; Lost Greenland Found ; The Character and 
Achievements of the Northmen; The Ships of 
the Northmen; The Literature of Iceland; The 
Manuscripts; The Truthfulness of the Narratives; 
Early Voyages from England to Iceland. 

III. Gunnbiorn and his Rocks. 

lY. Eric the Red's voyages to Green- 
land and his settlement, - A. D. 983-986. 
Y. Biarne Heriulfsson's voyage to the 

coast of America, - - A. D. 986, 
YI. Leif Ericson's voyage to Yinland, A. D. 1000-1001. 
YII. Thorvald Ericson's voyage to Yin- 
land A. D. 1002. 

YIII. Thorstein Ericson's attempt to 

Seek Yinland, - - - A. D. 1005. 
IX. Thorfinn Karlsefne's settlement in 

Yinland, _ A. D. 1006-1009. 

X. Frevdis's voyage and settlement in 

Yinland, - - - - A. D. 1010-1012. 

MINOR NARRATIVES, AND LETTERS. 

I. Are Marson's Soiourn in Hvitramanna- 

land, - - 1 - - - - - - A. D. 983. 

II. Yoyage of Biorn Asbrandson, - A. D. 999. 
III. Gudleif Gudlaugson's voyage, - - A. D- 1027. 
lY. Allusions to Voyages found in Ancient 

Manuscripts. 
Y. Saga of Einer Sokkeson - {circu7n) A. D. 1175. 
YI. Ge'ographical Fragments. 
YII. Papal Letters, Letters from the Vatican 

Library. 
YIII. The Bull of Gregory lY, - - - - A. D. 834. 



PREFACE. 



The chief aim of this work is to place within the reach 
of the English-reading public every portion of the Ice- 
landic-Sagas relating to the Pre-Columbian Discovery of 
America by the Northmen, and to indicate the movements 
by which that discovery was preceded. The reader will, 
therefore, find in this volume material from the Sagas not 
to be found in any other work in an English form. 

The Sagas have been left, in the main, to tell their own 
story, though the necessary notes and explanations have 
been added. 

So long ago as the year 1838, a distinguished writer in 
the North American Review, in closing a valuable and 
appreciative article on the Sagas relating to America, 
said: "We trust that some zealous student of these subjects 
will be immediately found, who will put the Icelandic 
authorities into an English dress, and prepare them, with 
proper literary apparatus, for the perusal of the general 
reader." 

In 1868 this suggestion was acted upon by the writer. 
Availing himself liberally of the studies of those who had 
preceded him, he brought out a volume devoted to the sub- 
ject. That work, however, owing to a large demand, 
soon went out of print; while in 1890 the progress of dis- 
cussion, and the nearness of the coming Columbian Cele- 
brat on, justified a new edition, which was brought out, 
with various improvements, being soon exhausted. 

A third edition is now called for, and, in fact, rendered 
necessary by the discovery in the Vatican Library, at Rome, 
of a number of Papal letters that exhibit the subject in 
a new light. The testimony of these letters is of the high- 
est value. 

[5] 



Q Pkeface. 

In treating the Sagas, the writer has not felt called upon 
to modify his views on any important point, and, substan- 
tially, his interpretation of these documents is the same as 
that undertaken in the original work. Time has only served 
to strengthen the belief of scholars in the historical char- 
acter of the Sagas, while geographical studies now point, as 
formerly, to New England as one scene of the Northman's 
exploits, many of which have left no record, though traces 
of Icelandic occupation may yet be found on the coast 
between Cape Cod and Nova Scotia. 

The author is strengthened in his opinion, not only by 
his own studies, but by the growing favor with which 
the profoundest scholars in Europe regard the Icelandic 
historical literature. Everywhere societies, as well as dis- 
tinguished students of history, are in one way or another 
expressing their belief in the authenticitj of the Sagas re- 
lating to the Pre-Columbian Discovery of America. Speak- 
ing of the Icelandic voyagers, and their acquaintance with 
America, Professor Max Muller says: "I have met with 
nothing to shake my belief in the fact that the Northmen 
possessed such knowledge."* 

This work is not issued with the least intention of seek- 
ing to detract from the glory of the achievements of Colum- 
bus. That were impossible, though we should remember 
the claim of the Cabots, the great fellow countrymen of 
the Genoese, who saw the Continent of America before 
Columbus himself viewed it. The desire is to place before 
the reader the story preceding that of 1492, which is so 
interesting and important. 

The author hopes that the Sagas have not been misin- 
terpreted, or left obscure, especially as these records relat- 
ing to the Pre-Columbian voyages are given in Professor 
Rafn's work on the Antiquities of America, accompanied 
by helpful notes and versions in Latin and Danish. In 
everything relating to the latter tongue, the author has 
had the invaluable assistance and advice of one who has 

* Letter to the Author, August 14, 1889. 



Pkeface. 7 

spoken it from childhood. He has also had most import- 
ant and indispensable aid in connection with the Icelandic. 

This work being strictly historical, both in spirit and de- 
sign, the poetical extracts which occm- here and there are 
translated as literally as possible, without any attempt to 
garnish them with metre and rhyme. Nevertheless ex- 
amples in rhyme are given in the ISTotes. 

It will be seen that the author differs on some points from 
Professor Raf n ; yet it is believed that if that great student 
of Northern Antiquities could have gone over the subject 
again, studying it on the ground, and amid the scenes in 
which so many of the exploits of the Northmen were per- 
formed, he would have modified some of his views. 

On the other hand, the author has sought to strengthen 
several of the conclusions of that noble and laborious inves- 
tigator, and particularly by bringing out more fully the 
truthfulness of the Icelandic descriptions of the New Eng- 
land coast, which, centuries ago, presented an aspect that it 
does not now possess. 

Let us remember, too, that in vindicating the Icelanders 
we honor those who gave, not indeed the first knowledge 
of the American Continent, but men to whom we are in- 
debted for much that we esteem very valuable besides the 
immortal Sagas. In reality we fable, in a great measure, 
when we speak of our " Saxon inheritance." It is rather 
from the Northmen that we derived vital energy, freedom 
of thought, and, in a measure that we do not yet suspect, 
our strength of speech. Yet, happily, the people are be- 
coming conscious of their indebtedness; so that it is to be 
hoped that the time is not far distant when the Northmen 
may be recognized in their true social, political and liter- 
ary character, and at the same time, as navigators assume 
their rightful position in the Pre-Columbian Discovery of 
America. 

It is gratifying to to be able to state here, in conclud- 
ing, that, after the publication of the Second Edition of 
this work (just before 1890), the distinguished historian of 
the United States, the Hon. George Bancroft, under date 



8 Peeface. 

of Washington, D. C, Dec. 30, 1889, communicated to 
the author the fact that he had withdrawn his objections 
to the historic character of the voyages recorded in the 
Sagas, and that he struck out reference to the subject in 
his last work, not only for the reason that he was engaged 
in condensing the narrative, but because he recognized 
that he had long been in error. This is certainly a most 
important admission. 

B. F. De COSTA. 



PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERT. 



GENERAL INTEODUCTION. 

HISTORIC FANCIES. 

Before the plains of Europe rose above the primeval seas 
the Continent of America emerged from the watery waste 
that encircled the whole globe, and became the scene of 
animate life. The so-called New World is in reality the 
Old, and bears abundant proofs of hoary age. But at what 
period it became the abode of man we are unable even to 
conjecture. Down to the close of the tenth century of 
the Christian era it had little or no written history even in 
Central America. Traces of a rude civilization that suggest 
a high antiquity are by no means wanting. Monuments 
and mounds remain that point to periods the contemplation 
of which would cause Chronos himself to grow giddy; yet 
among all these great and often impressive memorials there 
is no monument, inscription or sculptured frieze that satis- 
factorily explains their origin. Tradition itself is dumb, 
and the theme chiefly kindles when brought within the 
realm of imagination. "We can only infer that age after 
age nations and tribes rose to greatness and then fell into 
decline, barbarism and a rude culture holding alternate 
Bway. ' 

Nevertheless, men have enjoyed no small degree of sat- 
isfaction in conjuring up theories to explain the origin of 
the early races on the "Western Continent. What a charm 

^ Of course we must not overlook the recent researches into 
the history of Central America, and especially the studies in 
connection with Yucatan. 

[9J 



10 Pee-Columbian Discoveky of 

lingers around the supposed trans-Atlantic voyages of tlie 
hardy Phenician, the luxurious sailors of Tyre, and, later, 
of the bold Basque. What stories might the lost picture- 
records of Mexico and the chronicles of Dieppe tell. Now 
we are presented with the splendid view of great fleets, the 
remnant of some conquered race, bearing across the ocean 
to re-create in new and unknown lands the cities and monu- 
ments they were forever leaving behind; and now it is 
simply the story of some storm-tossed mariner, who blindly 
drives across the sea to the western strand, and lays the 
foundation of empire. Again it is the devotee of mammon 
in search of gainful traffic or golden fleece. How roman 
tic is the picture of his little solitary bark setting out in the 
days of Koman greatness, or in the splendid age of Charle- 
magne, sailing trustingly away between the pillars of Her- 
cules, and tossing toward the Isles of the Blessed and the 
Fountains of Eternal Youth. In time the Ultima Thiile 
of the known world is passed, and favoring gales bear the 
merchant-sailor to new and wondrous lands. We see him 
coasting the unknown shores, passing from cape to cape, 
and from bay to inlet, gazing upon the marvels of the New 
World, trafficking with the bronzed Indian, bartering cur- 
ious wares for barbaric gold; and then shaping his course 
again for the markets of the distant East, to pour strange 
tales into incredulous ears. Still this may not be all fancy. 

THE SEA OF DARKNESS. 

In early times the Atlantic ocean, like all things without 
known bounds, was viewed by man with mixed feelings 
of fear and awe. It was called the Sea of Darkness. Yet, 
/ nevertheless, there wei-e those who professed to have some 
knowledge of its extent, and of what lay beyond. The 
earliest reference to this sea is that bj Theopompus, in the 
fourth century before the Christian era, given in a frag- 
ment of ^Elian,^ where a vast island is described, lying far 
in the west, and peopled by strange races. To this we may 

1 Var. Hist. lib. Ill, cap. XVIII. 



America by the Nokthmkn. 11 

— \ 
add the reference of Plato' to the island called "Atlantis," ' 

west of the Pillars of Hercules, which was estimated to be 
larger than Asia and Africa combined." Aristotle also 
thought that many other lands existed beyond the Atlantic, 
Plato supposed that Atlantis was sunk by an earthquake, and 
Grantor declares that he found the same account related by i 
the Priests of Sais three hundred years after the time of 
Solon, from whom the grandfather of Critias had his 
information. Plato says, that after Atlantis disappeared, 1/ 
navigation was rendered too difficult to be attempted on 
account of the slime which resulted from the sinking of 
the land. It is probable that he had in mind the immense 1 
fields of drifting sea-weed found in that locality, estimated 
by Humboldt to cover a portion of the Atlantic ocean six 
times as large as all Germany. _ 

It is thought that Homer ^ obtained the idea of his Ely- 
sium in the Western ocean from the voyages of the Phe- 
nicians, who, as is well known, sailed regularly to the 
British Islands. They are also supposed by some to have 
pushed their discoveries as far as the Western Gontinent. 
Cadiz, situated on the shore of Andalusia, was established 
by the Tyrians twelve centuries before the birth of Ghrist; 
and when Gadiz, the ancient Gadir, was full live hundred 
years old, a Greek trader, Golseus, there bought rare 
merchandise, a long and severe gale having driven his ships 
beyond the Pillars of Hercules. 

THE PHENICIANS. 

In the ninth century before the Ghristian era, the Phe- 
nicians had established colonies on the western coast of 
Africa ; and three hundred years later, according to Herod- 
otus, Pharaoh Necho, son of Psammiticus, sent an expedi- 
tion, manned by Phenician sailors, around the entire coast 

I ' See Plato's Critias and Timceas. 

' De Mundo, cap. III. See Prince Henry the Navigator, 
chap. VII, by Major, London, i868. 

• Odyssey, book IV, 1. 765. 



12 Pke- Columbian Discovery of 

of Africa. YivieD de St. Martin fixes the date of this 
expedition at 570 before Christ. St. Martin, in his account 
of the voyage, improves slightly upon the views of Carl 
Muller, and is followed by Bougainville.* A notice of this 
voyage performed by Hanno under the direction of Pha- 
raoh, was inscribed in the Punic language on a Carthage- 
nian temple, being afterward translated into Greek. 

That the Canary Islands were discovered and colonized 
by the Phenicians, there need be no doubt. Tradition had 
palways located islands in that vicinity. Strabo speaks of 
\ the Islands of the Blessed, as lying not far from Mauri- 
! tania, opposite Gadir or Cadiz. He distinctly says, " That 
those who pointed out these things were the Phenicians^ 
who, before the time of Homer, had possession of the best 
part of Africa and Spain."- "When we remember that the 
Phenicians sought to monopolize trade, and hold the knowl- 
edge of their commercial resorts a secret, it is not surpris- 
ing that we should hear no more of the Fortunate Isles 
until about eighty -two years before Christ, when the Roman 
Sertorius met some Lusitanian sailors on the coast of Spain 
who had just returned from the Fortunate Isles. They are 
described as two delightful islands, separated by a narrow 
strait, distant from Africa five hundred leagues. Twenty 
years after the death of Sertorius, Statins Sebosue drew 
up a chart of a group of five islands, each mentioned by 
name, and which Pliny calls the Hesperides, including the 
Fortunate Isles. This mention of the Canaries was sixty- 
three years before Christ. 

juba's expedition. 

When King Juba II returned to Mauritania, he sent an 
expedition to the Fortunate Isles. A fragment of the nar- 
ratives of this expedition is found in the works of Pliny. 
The islands are described as lying south-west, six hundred 
and twenty-five miles from Purpurariae. To reach them 

• See "Prince Henry the Navigator," p. 90. 
•Strabo, lib. III. 



America by the Nokthmen. 13 

from the latter place, tliey fii-st sailed two hundred and 
fifty miles westward, and then three hundred and seventy- 
five miles eastward. Pliny says: " The first is called 
Ombrios, and affords no traces of buildings. It contains 
a pool in the midst of mountains, and trees like ferules, 
from which water may be pressed. It is bitter from the 
black kinds, but from the light kinds pleasant to drink. 
The second is called Junonia, and contains a small temple 
built entirely of stone. Near it is another smaller island 
having the same name. Then comes Capraria, which is 
full of large lizards. Within sight of these is Mvaria, 
named from the snow and fogs with which it is always cov- 
ered. Not far from Mvaria is Canaria, called thus on 
account of the great number of large dogs therein, two of 
which were brought to King Juba. There were traces of 
buildings in these islands. All the islands abound in apples 
and in birds of every kind, and in palms covered with dates 
and in the pine nut. There is also plenty of fish. The 
papyrus grows there, and the silurus fish is found in the 
rivers." * 

The author of Prince Henry the Navigator,^ says that in 
Ombrios, we recognize the Pluvialia of Sebosus. Con- 
vallis of Sebosus, in Pliny, becomes Nivaria, the Peak of 
Teneriffe, which lifts litsef up to the majestic height of 
nine thousand feet, its snow-capped pinnacle seeming to 
pierce the sky. Planaria is displaced by Canaria, which 
term, first applied to the great central island, now gives the 
name to the whole group. Ombrios or Pluvialia, evidently 
means the island of Palma, which had '' a pool in the midst 
of mountains, " now represented by the crater of an extinct 
volcano. This the sailors of King Juba evidently saw. 
Major says : ' ' The distance of this island (Palma) from 
Fuerteventura agrees with that of the two hundred and 
fifty miles indicated by Juba's navigators as existing be- 
tween Ombrios and the Purpurariae. It has already been 

•Pliny's "Natural History," lib. VI, cap. XXXVII. 
' See p. 137, First Edition. 



14 Pre-Columbiax Discovery of 

seen that the latter agree with Lancerote and Fuerte Ven- 
tura, in respect of their distance, from the Continent and 
from each other, as described by Plutarch. That the Pur- 
purariae are not, as M. Bory de St. Vincent supposed, the 
Madeira group, is not only shown by the \^ant of inhab- 
itants in the latter, but by the orchil, which supplies the 
purple dye, being derived from and sought for especially 
from the Canaries, and not from the Madeira group, 
although it is to be found there. Junonia," he continues, 
" the nearest to Ombrios, will be Gomera. It may be pre- 
sumed that the temple found therein was, like the island, 
dedicated to Juno. Capraria, which implies the island of 
goats, agrees correctly with the island ot Ferro, . . . for 
these animals were found there in large numbers when the 
island was invaded by Jean de Bethencourt, in 1402. But 
a yet more striking proof of the identity of this island with 
Capraria, is the account of the great number of lizards 
found therein. Bethencourt's chaplains, describing their 
visit to the islands, in 1402, state : ' There are lizards in 
it as big as cats, but they are harmless, although very hide- 
ous to look at.' " ' 

We see, then, that the navigators of Juba visited the 
Canaries^ at an early period, as did the Phenicians, who 
doubtless built the temple in the island of Junonia. For 
aught we know, early navigators may have passed over 

' "Prince Henry the Navigator," p. 137. 

' After this mention by Pliny, the Canaries, or Fortunate 
Isles, are lost sight of for a period of thirteen hundred years. 
In the reign of Edward III of England, at the beginning of 
the fourteenth century, one Robert Machin sailed from Bris- 
tol for France, carrying away a lady of rank, who had eloped 
with him, and was driven by a storm to the Canaries, where 
he landed, and thus re-discovered the lost Fortunate Isles. 
This fact is curiously established by Major, in the "Life of 
Prince Henry," so that it can no longer be regarded as an idle 
tales. (See pp. 66-77). In 1341 a voyage was also made to 
the Canaries, under the auspices of King Henry of Portugal. 
The report, so widely circulated by De Barros, that the islands 



America by the Northmen. 15 

to the "Western Continent and laid the foundation of those 
strange nations whose monuments still remain. Both Phe- 
nician and Tyrian voyages to the Western Continent have 
been advocated; while Lord Kingsborough published his 
magnificent volumes on the Mexican Antiquities, to show 
that the Jews settled this continent at an early day. * If it 
is true that all the tribes of the earth sprang from one cen- 
tral Asiatic family, it is not unlikely that some of the origi- 
nal inhabitants of the American Continent crossed the At- 
lantic, instead of piercing the frozen regions of the north, 
or coming in by the way of Behring Straits. From 
the Canaries to the coast of Florida, it is a short voyage, 
and the bold sailors of the Mediterranean, after touching 
at the Canaries, need only spread their sails before the 
steady -breathing monsoon to find themselves wafted safely 
to the western shore. 

TRADITIONS. 

There is a tradition that America was visited b}' St. 
Columba," and also by the Apostle St. Thomas,' who pene- 
trated even as far as Peru. This opinion is founded on 
the resemblance existing between certain rites and doctrines 
which might seeTn to have been held in common by Chris- 
tians and the early inhabitants of Mexico. The first Span- 
ish missionaries were surprised to find the Mexicans appar- 
ently bowing in adoration before a figure of the cross, 
and inferred that these people were of a Christian origin. 
Yet the inference has no special value, when we remember 
that Christianity is far less ancient than the symbol of the 

were re-discovered by Prince Henry is, therefore, incorrect. 
His expedition reached Porto Santo and Madeira in 1418- 
1420. 

^ He also speculates upon the probability of this Continent 
having been visited by Christian missionaries. The Hebrew 
theory is hardly tenable, and must be classed with the specu- 
lations of the famous Major Noah. See vol. VI, p. 410. 

"^YAvig^oxGw^'s Mexican Antiquities, vol. VI, p. 285. 

' Ibid., p. 332. 



16 Pbe-Columbian Discovert of 

cross, which existed among the Egyptians and other an- 
cient people. - 

Attention must be given to the activity of the Irish. 
Broughton brings forward a passage in which St. Patrick 
is represented as sending missionaries to the Isles of 
America.'^ A claim has been urged of a more respectable 
character, supported by striking, though not wholly con- 
clusive allusions in the chronicles of the North, in which 
a distant land is spoken of as "Ireland the Great." The 
Irish, in the early times, might easily have passed over to 
the "Western Continent, for which voyage they undoubtedly 
had the facilities. Professor Rafn, after alluding to the 
well-known fact that the Northmen were preceded in Ice- 
land by the Irish, says, that it is by no means improbable 
that the Irish should also have anticipated them in Amer- 
ca. The Irish were a sea-faring people, and have been 
assigned a Phenician origin by Moore and others who have 
examined the subject.^ If this is so, the tradition would 
appear to be somewhat strengthened. Even as early as 
the year 296, the Irish are said to have invaded Denmark 

' In Mexico they seem to have used the Epyptian ankh, the 
sign of life. 

"" Monastikon Brittanicutn, pp. 1 31-132, 187-188. The 
fact that the word America is here used seems hardly suffi- 
cient to upset the legend. Speaking of the claims to Pre- 
Columbian discovery at the west by the various eastern peo- 
ples, Mr. Winsor admits that "there is no good reason why 
any one of them may not have done all that is claimed." 
Narrative and Critical History of Atnerica, vol. I, p. 59. 

' The Irish were early known as Scots, and O'Halloran de- 
rives the name from Scota, high priest of Phoenius, and ances- 
tor of Mileseuis. 

Me quoque vicins pereuntem gentibus, inquit, 
Munivit Stilicho. Totam cum Scotus lernem, 
Movit et infesto spumavit remige Thetys. 

By him defended, when the neighboring hosts 
Of warlike nations spread along our coast; 
When Scots came thundering from the Irish shores, 
And the wild ocean foamed with the hostile oars. 



Ameeica by the Northmen. 17 

with a large fleet. In 396, Niall made a descent upon the 
coast of Lancashire with a considerable navy, where he was 
met by the Roman, Stilicho, whose achievements were 
celebrated by Claudian in the days of the Roman occupa- 
tion of England. At that period the Irish were in most 
respects in advance of the Northmen, not yet having fallen 
into decline, and quite as likely as any people then ex- 
isting to brave the dangers of an ocean voyage.' The Ice- 
landic documents, clearly referring to the Irish, will be 
given in their proper place. In truth as the wish is so 

^ Speaking of Britain and Ireland, Tacitus says of the latter, 
that "the approaches and harbors are better known, by rea- 
son of Commerce and the merchants." — Vtt. Agri., c. 24. 
The Irish, doubtless, mingled with the Carthagenians in mer- 
cantile transactions, and from them they not unlikely received 
the rites of Druidism. The story of a Welsh voyage to Amer- 
ica, under Prince Madoc, relates to a period following the 
Icelandic voyages. This voyage by the son of Owen Gwyneth 
is fixed for the year 11 70, and is based on Welsh chronicles, 
poems and genealogical authority. See Hackluyt, vol. Ill, p. i. 
See, also, America Discovered by the Welsh in 11 70, by 
Bowen, Philadelphia, 1876 ; A71 Enquiry into the Truth of the 
Tradition, concerning the Discovery ofAtnerica by Prince Madog ab 
Owen Gwyneth, about the year 1 170, by John Williams, etc., Lon- 
don, 1 791, p. 85; 2xA, Farther Observations on the Discovery 
of America by Prince Madog ab Owen Gwyneth, etc., 1792, 
p. 5 1 . The following is from the London Standard, September 
6, 1888, "Great interest was excited yesterday in North Wales 
by the announcement that the tomb of Madoc ap Gryifydd- 
maelor, a great Welsh warrior in the eleventh and twelfth cen- 
turies, grandson of Owen Gwynedd, Prince of Wales, had been 
discovered in the ruins of Valle Crucis Abbey, Llangollen. The 
Rev. H. T. Owen, warden of the abbey, who is now engaged 
upon some excavations, was searching for old stained glass in 
the dormitory, when he disinterred a large stone slab bearing 
the name of Madoc, and an inscription, which has not yet 
been fully deciphered. Down the centre of the stone is an in- 
cised sword in sheath. Further excavations led to the dis- 
2 



18 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

often father to the thought, it would be an easy task to find 
resemblance in the languages of the aborigines to almost 
any language that is spoken in our day, so far as mere 
sounds may be concerned. 

Much labor has been given to the subject, yet the early 
history of the American Continent is still veiled in mystery, 
and it is not until near the close of the tenth century of 
the present era that we can point to a known trans- Atlan- 
tic voyage, though prior to that time Europeans had reached 
Greenland. 

THE NORTHMEN. 

The first voyage to America, of which we now have any 
account, was performed by Northmen. But who were 
the Northmen? 

The Northmen were the descendants of a race that in 
early times migrated from Asia and traveled toward the 
north, settling in what is now the kingdom of Denmark. 
Thence they overran Norway and Sweden, and afterward 
colonized Iceland and Greenland. Their language was the 

covery of four other stones, each about five feet by eighteen 
inches; two bear floriated crosses, one an inscribed spear, and 
the other a Grecian ornament. The stones form part of the 
vaulting of the corridor leading to the old burial ground of the 
monks. Madoc ap Gryffydd founded the abbey, which was 
a Cistercian Monastery, about the year 1200. After the ven- 
erable building became a ruin, the chapter-house and scrip- 
torium were used for several generations as a farmstead, and 
were practically destroyed by fire. During the repairs it is con- 
jectured that the stones of Madoc's tomb were used to complete 
the vaulting. In 1851 the debris covering the area of the 
abbey was removed by Lord Dungannon, and the tombs of 
benefactors, buried in front of the high altar, the figure of a 
knight in chain armour, and a stone coffin were laid bare. 
During the excavations of last year the monk's well and spring 
were discovered. " The reader may consult the writer's "Myvye- 
rian Archaiology, " Albany, Joel Munsell's Sons, 1891, which 
shows the probabilities. On St. Brenden, see Gen. Butterfield, 
\Xi Freeman'' s Journal, July 27, 1901. 



America by the Northmen. 19 

old Danish {DonsJc tunga) once spoken all over the north,* 
but now preserved in Iceland, being called the Icelandic 
or old Korthern," upon which is founded the modern 
Swedish, Danish and Norse or Norwegian. 

After the Northmen pushed on from Denmark to Nor- 
way, the condition of public affairs in the latter country 
gradually became such that a large portion of the better 
classes found their life intolerable. In the reign of Har- 
old Harfagr (the Fair-haired), an attempt was made by 
the king to deprive the petty jarls of their ancient udal or 
feudal rights, and to usurp all authority for the crown. 
To this the proud jarls would not submit ; and, feeling them 
selves degraded in the eyes of their retainers, they resolved 
to leave those lands and homes which they could now 
hardly call theii own. Whither, then, should they go ? 

THE COLONIZATION OF ICELAND, 

In the cold North sea, a little below the Arctic circle, 
lay a great island. As early as the year 860, it had been 
made known to the Northmen by a Dane of Swedish 
descent named Gardar, who called it Gardar's Island, 
and four years later by the pirate Nadodd, who sailed 
thither in 864 and called it Snowland. Presenting in the 
main the form of an irregular ellipse, this island occupies 
an area of about one hundred and thirty-seven thousand 
square miles, affording the dull diversity of valleys -vvithout 
verdure and mountains without trees. ^ Desolation has there 
fixed its abode. It broods among the dells, and looks 
down upon the gloomy fiords. The country is threaded 
with streams and dotted with tarns, yet the geologist finds 

'See "Northmen in Iceland," Societe des Antiquaries du 
Nord^ Stance du \\ Mai, 1859, pp. 12-14. 

' It is sometimes, though improperly, called the Norse. 
Society des Antiquaries, etc., 1840-44, p. 165. 

^ In the earlier times when the Irish monks occupied the 
island, it is said that it was "covered with woods between the 
mountains and the shores." 



20 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

but little evidence in the structure of the earth to point to 
the action of water. On the other hand, every rock 
and hillside is covered with signs that prove their igneous 
origin, and indicate that the entire island, at some distant 
period, has already seethed and bubbled in the fervent 
heat, in anticipation of the long promised Palingenesia. 
Even now the ground trembles in the throes ol the earth- 
quake, the Geyser spouts scalding water, and the plain 
belches mud; while the great jokull, clad in white robes 
of eternal snow — true priest of Ormuzd — brandishes aloft 
its volcanic torch, and threatens to be the incendiary of 
the sky. 

The greater portion of the land forms the homestead of 
the reindeer and the fox, who share their domain with the 
occasional white bear that may float ovei from Greenland 
on some berg. Only two quadrupeds, the fox and the 
moose, are indigenous. Life is here purchased with a strug- 
gle. Indeed the neighboring ocean is more hospitable than 
the dry land. Of the thirty-four species of mammalia, 
twenty-four find their food in the roaring main. The same 
is true of the feathered tribes, fifty-four out of ninety being 
water-fowl. Here and there may be seen patches of 
meadow and a few sheep pastures and tracts of arable land 
warmed into fruitfulness by the brief summer's sun; yet, 
on the whole, so poor is the soil that man, like the lower 
orders, must eke out a scanty subsistence by resorting to 
the sea. 

It was toward this land, which the settlers called Ice- 
hind, that the proud Norwegian jarl turned his eyes, and 
there he resolved to found a home. The first settler was 
Ingolf. lie approached the coast in the year 875, threw 
overboard his seat-posts,* and waited to see tliem touch the 
land. But in this he was disappointed, and those sacred 
columns, carved with the images of the gods, drifted away 

' Setsiakkar. These were wooden pillars carve with images, 
usually of Thor and Odin. In selecting a place for a settle- 
ment they were flung overboard, and wherever they were 



Ameeica by the Northmen. 21 

from sight. He nevertheless landed on a pleasant promon- 
tory at the south-eastern extremity of the island, and built 
his habitation on the spot which is called Ingolfshofdi to 
this day. Three years after, his servants found the sea- 
posts in the southwestern part of the island, and hither, in 
obedience to what was held to be the express wish of the 
gods,^ he removed his household, laying the foundation of 
Reikiavik, the capital of this ice-bound isle. He was rap- 
idly followed by others, and in a short time no inconsider- 
able population was gathered here. 

But the first Scandinavian settlers did not find this bar- 
ren country entirely destitute of human beings. Ari 
Frode,^ than whom there is no higher authority, says: 
*' Then were here Christian people whom the Northmen 

thrown up on the beach, there the settlement was to be formed 
These idols were also called "stocks," and the site of " Stock- 
holm," Sweden, was chosen by the same rule. 

* In another case a settler did not find his posts for twelve 
years, nevertheless he changed his abode then. In Frithiof's 
Saga (American edition) chap. Ill, p. i8, we find the follow- 
ing allusion : 

" Through the whole length of the hall shone forth the table of oak 
wood, 
Brighter than steel, and poliehed; the pillars twain of the high seats 
Stood on each side thereof; two gods deep carved out of eiin wood: 
Odin with glance of a king, and Frey with the sun on his forehead." 

* Ari Hinn Frode, or the Wise. The chief compiler of the 
famous Latidatiama Bok, which contains a full account of all 
the early settlers in Ifeland. It is of the same character, though 
vastly superior to the English "Doomsday Book," and is 
probably the most complete record of the kind ever made 
by any nation. It contains the names of 3,000 persons, and 
1,400 places. It gives a correct account of the genealogies of 
the families, and brief notices of personal achievements. It 
was begun by Frode (born 1067, died 1148), and was contin- 
ued by Kalstegg, Styrmer and Thorsden, and completed by 
Hauk Erlandson, Lagman, or Governor of Iceland, who died 
in the year 1334. 



22 Pre-Coltjmbian Discovery of 

called Papas, but they afterward went away, because they 
would not be here among heathens; and left behind them 
Irish books, and bells, and croziers, from which it could 
be seen that they were Irishmen." He repeats substan- 
tially the same thing in the Landanama Boh, the author- 
ity of which, no one acquainted with the subject, will 
question, adding, that books and other relics were found in 
the island of Papey and Papyli, and says that the circum- 
stance is also mentioned in English books. This is also 
stated in an edition of King Olaf Tryggvesson's Saga, 
made near the end of the fourteenth century, thus recog- 
nizing the priority of the Irish. 

The monks or Culdees, who had come hithei* from Ire- 
land to be alone with God, took their departure on the 
arrival of the heathen followers of Odin and Thor, and 
the Northmen were thus left in undisputed possession of 
the soil. In about twenty years the island became quite 
thickly settled, though the tide of hnmigration continued 
to flow in strongly for fifty years, so that at the beginning 
of the tenth century Iceland possessed a population vari- 
ously estimated from sixty to seventy thousand souls. 
But few undertook the voyage who were not able to buy 
their own vessels, in which they carried over their own 
cattle, thralls, and household goods. So great was the num- 
ber of people who left Norway, thai King Harold tried to 
prevent emigration by royal authority, though, as might 
have been predicted, his efforts were altogether in vain. 
Here, in Iceland, therefore, was formed a large commun- 
ity, taking the shape of an aristocratic republic, which 
framed its own laws, and for a long time maintained a 
genuine independence, in opposition to all the assump- 
tions and threats of the Norwegian king. 

THE SETTLEMENT OF GREENLAND. 

As time passed, the people of Iceland felt a new impulse 
for colonization in strange lands, and the tide of emigra- 
tion began to tend toward Greenland in the west. This 
was chiefly inaugurated by a man named Eric the Red, 



America by the Northmen. 23 

born in Norway in the year 935. On account of man- 
slaughter, he was obliged to flee from Jardar and take 
up his abode in Iceland. The date of removal to Iceland 
is not given, though it is said that at that time the island 
was very generally inhabited. Here, however, he could 
not live in peace, and early in the year 982, he was again 
outlawed by the king for manslaughter and condemned to 
banishment. He accordingly fitted out a ship, and an- 
nounced his determination to go in search of the land 
lying in the ocean at the west, which, it was said, Gunn- 
biorn,' Ulf Krage's son, saw when, in the year 876, he was 
driven out to sea by a storm, Eric sailed westward and 
found land, where he remained and explored the country 
for three years. At the end of this period he returned to 
Iceland, giving the newly-discovered land the name of 
Greenland, in order, as he said, to attract settlers, who 
would be favorably impressed by so pleasing a name, 
which, however, did not originate with him. 

The summer after his return to Iceland, he sailed once 
more for Greenland, taking with him a fleet oi thirty-five 
ships, only fourteen of which reached their destination, the 
rest being either driven back or lost. This event took 
place, as the Saga says, fifteen winters before the introduc- 
tion of Christianity into Iceland, which we know was ac- 
complished in the year A. D. 1000. The date of Eric's 
second voyage is, therefore, set down at 9.85. 

At this point, however, we must turn to call distinct atten- 
tion to the fact that the discovery of Greenland bj Eric 
was at the best a rediscovery. 

Following the authority of Geoffrey of Monmouth, it 
appears that the earliest known movement northward was 
that inaugurated by King Arthur, about the year 505. 
Geoffrey of Monmouth was bishop of Saint Asaph in 
1152, and wrote the Historia Britonmn, a work which 

' All the information which we possess relating to the dis- 
covery by Gunnbiorn is given in the body of this work, in ex- 
tracts from Landanama Bok. 



24 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

afforded a basis for the fables and romances of the "Knights 
of the Round Table." Nevertheless, whoever inclines to 
turn from all the statements of Geoffrey, for the reason 
that they contain much that is unhistorical, should ponder 
the well-considered words of Hume ("England," I, 38, 
ed. 1822), who says of the Prince of Silures: " This is that 
Arthur so much celebrated in the songe of Thaliessin and 
the other British bards, and whose military achievements 
have been blended with so many fables as even to give 
occasion for entertaining a doubt of his real existence. 
But poets," he continues," though they disfigure the most 
certain history of their fictions, and use strange liberties 
with truth, where they are the sole historians as among 
the Britons, have commonly some foundation for their 
wildest exaggerations." The Bishop of Saint Asaph, 
who was not a poet, may be credited, therefore, when he 
states such simple facts as that, about the year 505, King 
Arthur, after the " Conquest of Ireland," received the sub- 
mission of the Orkneys and sailed to Iceland, " which he 
also subdued;" at a subsequent period overcoming his foes 
in Norway. (B. IX, c. 10.) As to the Conquest of Ire- 
land, it may have been some small victory magnified by the 
writer, even though it is represented that much blood was 
shed.' The Conquest of Ireland, if he went there, could 
not have involved any great struggle." 

' See Hyde's "Literary History of Ireland," p. 572. 

' Hakluyt (I, i), treating this matter, quotes from Galfridus 
Monumetensis, who says that, after subduing Ireland, Arthur 
went to Iceland, and " brought it and the people thereof under 
his subjection." The same author mentions " Maluasius " 
as " King " of Iceland, and tells of soldiers that he furnished. 
The "King," however, may perhaps be reduced to a figure 
of speech, while there could have been few soldiers, unless 
indeed, Arthur, as elsewhere stated, transported people to the 
north. See " Inventio Fortunata. Arctic Exploraiton, with an 
account of Nicholas of Lynn," etc. By B. F. De Costa, New 
York, 1 86 1, p. 5. Unfortunately of this period we know little 



America by the Northmen. 25 

We have already learned from LandanaTna^MhoX the Irish 
were in Iceland before the Northmen arrived. How lon^ 
they had been there it would be impossible to say; but we 
know that after the conversion of Ireland, and the death 
of St. Patrick, near the end of the fifth century, the Irish 
Religious went far and wide. Among the English writers 
referred to by Frode was Bede. He writes: " Thus saith 
the holy priest Bede. . . . Therefore learned men think 
that it is Iceland which is called Thule. . . . But the holy 
priest Bede died dccxxxv years after the birth of our Lord 
Jesus Christ, more than a hundred years before Iceland was 
inhabited by the Northmen. " This extract shows that the 
Irish Christians retired to Iceland at a very early day. 
The Irish monk Dicuil also refers to this solitary island, 
which, about the year 795, was visited by some monks 
with whom he had conversed.^ In this connection the re- 
sults of the Danish invasion of Ireland should be considered, 
since that may have resulted in driving men to both Ice- 
land and Greenland. 

In connection with Greenland the investigator seems to 
stand on solider ground. Christophessen declared that 
Greenland was discovered in the year 770; and Pontanus 
gives a bull of Gregory IV, 835, which shows that both 
Iceland and Greenland were known at that period." Yet 
it is generally understood and laid down, tliat Eric the Red 
first led colonists into those parts. We have seen, how- 
ever, that Eric in 983 went west in search of the land found 
by Gunnbiorn in 876; while the Sagas admit that the 
Irish were in America before the men of Iceland reached 

or nothing, and can neither afifirm nor deny, as is the case so 
often with Early Irish History. 

' Antiquitates AmericatKS, p. 202. 

* It is also referred to by Peyrere. In 1869, when publish- 
ing "The Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson," the author 
was sceptical about the authenticity of this bull, which had been 
questioned by the Bollandists. It is found in Rerum Dani- 
carum Hisforia, by Pontanus. 



26 Pre-Columbian Discoveey of 

that country. Turning to the Minor Narratives, toward 
the end of this volume, the reader will find the story. 
The Irish, through Ralf the Limerick merchant, reported 
one Are Marson, an Icelander, as held a prisoner in a coun- 
try at the west, called ' ' Ireland the Great. ' ' He was 
among Christians, apparently, as he had been baptized there. 
In 981 Marson was a well-known man in Iceland. He 
went on a voyage and disappeared, but was found later. 
On the spread of the missionaries and monks following the 
conquest of Ireland by St. Patrick, Irishmen probably 
found their way to Greenland and parts of the mainland 
of America, as they did to Iceland. The fact that we have 
only vague and shadowy reports of their actions has noth- 
ing to do with the reality of the explorations. In denying 
these reports, men simply make their ignorance a basis for 
disbelief. The early days of America, no doubt, were 
marked by much maritime adventure that has left no 
record. 

Both Christophessen and Pontanus had authority for 
their statements, but now from the Yatican archives, we 
have a confirmation of Pontanus. These archives will be 
discussed later, but attention must here be called to the letter 
of Pope Nicholas Y, Sept. 20, 1M8, in which he says: 
" From the natives and inhabitants of Greenland, an island 
said to be situated in the most distant parts of the ocean 
off the northern coast of the Kingdom of Norway, in the 
Province of Drontheim a mournful wail has reached our 
ears and saddened our hearts. This people nearly six 
hundred years ago received the faith. ' ' This letter will be 
given in its place. It is referred to here for the fact that it 
confirms the statement in the Bull of Gregory lY, by ear- 
ring back the Church in Greenland to about 848, more than 
a century earlier than the time of Eric the Ped. We may 
next expect confirmation of the date of Christophessen^ 770. 
The Icelanders made no claim to priority, but conceded it 
to the Irish in the lands at the west, even as in Iceland. 

The Bull of Gregory lY is not given in its perfect form 
by Pontanus, the date being wanting, but this is supplied, 



America by the N^orthmen. 27 

eubstantially, by the reference to the rescript of the Em- 
peror Louis which precedes it and to which it refers. This 
document bears the date of May 21, 834. The Bull gives / 
the new archbishop jurisdiction not only over Sweden and 
Norway, but Iceland and Greenland. It shows that the 
Papal rule was exercised over those regions remote from 
Europe at an early day, and also disposes of the priority of 
Eric the Bed.' 

THE PROGRESS OF THE GREENLAND COLONIES. 

There is a lack of continuity in the history of the Ice- 
landic occupation of Greenland. We have already seen 
that the second voyage of Eric the Red took place in the 
year 985. Colonists appear to have followed him in con- 
siderable numbers, and the best portions of the land were 
soon appropriated by the principal men, who gave the 
chief bays and capes names that indicated the occupants, 
following the example of Eric, who dwelt in Bi-attahlid, 
in Ericsfiord. 

In the year 999, Leif, son of Eric, sailed from Greenland 
to Norway, and passed the winter at the court of King Olaf 
Tryggvesson, where he accepted the Christian faith, which 
was then being zealously propagated by the king. He was 
accordingly baptized, and, when the spring returned, the 
king requested him to undertake the introduction of Chris- 
tianity in Greenland, urging the consideration that no man 
was better qualified for the task. Accordingly he set sail 
from Norway, with a priest and several members of a re- 
ligious order, arriving at Brattahlid, in Greenland, without , 
any accident. ^ His pagan father was incensed by the bring- 
ing in of the priest, which act he regarded ap pregnant with 

' For literary illustrations of Irish fearlessness on the sea 
and their eagerness to battle with the waves, see Hyde's "Lit- 
erary History of Ireland," pp. 366-9. 

" The statement, found in several places, that he discovered 
Vinland while on his way to Greenland, is incorrect. The 
full account of his voyages shows that his Vinland voyage was 
an entirely separate achievement. 



28 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

evil; yet, after some persuasion on the part of Leif, he re- 
nounced heathenism and nominally accepted tlie Catholic 
religion, being baptized by the priest. His wife Thor- 
hild made less opposition, and appears to have received 
the new Faith with much willingness. One of her firs* 
acts was to build a church, which was known far and wide 
as Thorhild's church. These examples seem to have 
been very generally followed, and Christianity was adopted 
. / in both Iceland and Greenland at about the same peroid,' 
^ though its acceptance did not immediately produce any 
radical social changes. In course of time a number of 
churches were built, the ruins of which remain down to 
our day.' 

In the year 1003, the Greenlanders became tributary to 
Norway. The principal settlement was formed on the 
western coast. What was known as the eastern disti'ict did 
not extend farther than the southern extremity toward 
Cape Farewell. In modern times it came to be supposed 
that the east district was located on the eastern coast of 
Greenland; but the researches of Captain Graah, whose 
expedition went out under the auspices of the Danish gov- 
ernment, proved very conclusively that no settlement ever 
existed on the eastern shore, which for centuries has remained 
blocked up by vast accumulations of ice thai floated down 
from the Arctic seas. In early times, as we are informed 
by the Sagas, the eastern coast was more accessible, yet 
the western shores were so superior in their attractions that 
the colonist fixed his habitation there. The site of the east- 
ern settlement, eastern relative to the western, is that 
included in the modern district of Julian's Hope, now 
occupied by a Danish colony. The western settlement is 
represented by the habitation of Frederikshab, Godthaab, 
Sukkertoppen and Holsteinborg. 

' Gissur the White and Hialte went on the same errand to 
Iceland in the year iooo,when the new religion was formally 
adopted at the public Thing. 

' See Bradford's work on Greenland, with an introduction 
by the present writer; also his edition of Bardsen's Relation. 



America by the Northmen. 29 

the organization of the church. 

Christians in Greenland multiplied to such an extent, 
both by conversions and by the immigration from Iceland, 
that it was found necessary, in the beginning of the twelfth 
century, to take measures for the government of the 
church, especially as they could not hope for regular 
visits from the bishops of Iceland. They, therefore, 
resolved to make an eifort to secure a bishop of theii own. 
Eric Gnupson, a priest of Iceland, was selected for the 
office, and proceeded to Greenland about the year 1112, 
without being consecrated. He returned to Iceland in 
1120, and afterward went to Denmark, where he was 
consecrated in Lund, by Archbishop Adzer. Yet he never 
undertook episcopal duties in Greenland, but soon after 
declined that bishopric and accepted another,' thus leav- 
ing Greenland still without an episcopal director. 

In the year 1123, Sokke, one of the principal men of 
Greenland, assembled the people and represented to them 
that both the welfare of the Christian faith and their own 
honor demanded that they should follow the example of 
other people and maintain a bishop. To this view they 
gave their unanimous approval; and Einar, son of Sokke, 
was appointed a delegate to the court of King Sigurd, of 
Norway. He carried a present of ivory and fur, and a 
petition for the appointment of a bishop. His mission was 
successful, and, in the year 1126, Arnald, the successor of 
Eric,'^ came into Greenland, and set up the Episcopal seat 
at Gardar.^ Torfseus and Baron Holberg* give a list of 

' It will be seen hereafter that he went and established him- 
self in Vinland. 

■■' See Me'moires des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 2>^2>- 

' The location of Gardar is now uncertain. At one time it 
was supposed to have been situated on the eastern coast; but, 
since it became so clear that the east coast was never inhabited, 
that view has been abandoned, though the name appears in 
maps of a late date. 

* See Crantz's "Greenland," vol. I, p. 252. 



30 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

seventeen bishops who ruled in Greenland, ending with 
Andrew. The latter was consecrated and went thither 
in 1408. 

A history of Old Greenland is found in the Ecclesiasti- 
cal Annals, and consists of a skeleton of facts. As in Ice- 
land, Ireland and ISTorway there was no end of broils and 
bloodshed. A yqyj considerable trade was evidently car- 
ried on between that country and Norway, which is the 
case at the present time with Denmark. As the land 
afforded no materials for ships, they depended in too great 
a measure upon Europe foi communication with the riiother 
countries. 

This, in substance, was nearly all that could be said with 
much certainty in the previous edition of this w^ork, but 
new and important material has now been found in the 
Vatican. 

In 1892 the American Congress passed a resolution 
requesting the Roman Pontiff to make some contribution 
to the Columbian Exposition, and Cardinal Rampolla in- 
stituted an examination in the Vatican Archives, finding, 
among other material, important letters by popes relat- 
ing to Greenland, thus illuminating the pre-Columbian 
history of this continent. Twelve copies of these let. 
ters were made in fac simile, while a small edition was 
prepared and printed in Roman letter by the late J. C. 
Heywood, one of the chamberlains of Leo XIII, the work 
being marked by his broad and well-known scholarship.' 
A fac simile copy was exhibited at Chicago. The let- 
ters were found in the registers or letter books, of which 
there remain about twelve thousand, some being of parch- 
ment and others of paper. Copies of the letters were 
sent to the persons for whom they were intended. The 
collection begins, Mr. Heywood says, with Pope Innocent 
III, 1198-1216. All the documents of a previous date 

' Several copies were donated to the more distinguished 
libraries in the United States, one going to Harvard Univer- 
sity. 



America by the Noethmex. 31 

have disappeared.^ This is the more "anfortnnate, for the 
reason that the lost letters covered the most interesting 
period, which embraced the Icelandic occupation of New 
England. 

The new material begins with a letter by Innocent III, 
dated Feb. 13, 1206, addressed to the Archbishop of 
Drontheim, Norway. In this letter he says that Pope 
Eugene III, about 1148, established the See of Drontheim, 
"Iceland and Greenland," and now, acting "by virtue 
of the privilege granted him from on high in the person 
of the Prince of the Apostles " to judge and settle "the 
causes of all" and confirm the Christian faith "through- 
out the world," Innocent reaffirms the decree and confers 
the pallium on the new appointee, whose archdiocese 
extended into North America. Vinland is not mentioned, 
but at an early period mission work had been undertaken 
there from Greenland; we may consider New England as 
included in the province of which Drontheim was the seat. 
The supremacy of Peter is openly declared in this letter. 

Next we have four letters from Pope John XXI to the 
Archbishop of Drontheim, bearing date of December 4, 
1276. Seventy-one years had passed and the world was 
witnessing new and strange scenes. The Crusades were 
in progress. Sinews of war were needed, and the Arch- 
bishop of Drontheim was commanded to collect the tithes 
throughout his vast jurisdiction which included parts of 
the great world of the west. It was computed that six 
years could be spent in going through the territory, and, 
finally, on representation, some relief was granted in the 
work by the letter of Pope Nicholas III, January 31, 1279. 

The same pontiff, it will be seen by reference to the let- 
ters, on June 9, 1279, was arranging to supply wine and 

' Still a person representing the United States Government 
wrote: "Until Leo XIII came to the Vatican no amount of 
argument cr influence was able to unlock the mysterious manu- 
scripts, which for eighteen [j-/V] hundred years had been accumu- 
lating upon the shelves of the Holy See." 



32 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

altar bread for the northern jurisdiction, including parts 
of America. 

In 1281, Pope Martin lY recognizes that "the only 
tithes which can be collected in Greenland consist of skins 
of the elk or musk-ox or of seals and teeth of whales," and 
orders the Archbishop to exchange them foi current coin 
to the best advantage. 

Unfortunately, one hundred and sixty-one years pass 
before we find another letter. This is by Pope Nicholas 
Y, September 20, 1448, though we know that the succession 
of Greenland bishops was maintained in the meanwhile. 
He gives a mournful view of the situation, as will be 
seen by reference to his letter, saying: " This people, nearly 
six hundred years ago, accepted the faith from their glori- 
ous apostle, the blessed King Olaf, and preserved it pure 
and unchanged guided by the rites of the holy Eoman 
Church and the Apostolic See. In lapse of time, animated 
by a tireless devotion, they built many churches and a 
splendid cathedral, in which the worship of God was faith- 
fully maintained until thirty years ago." This would 
give the date of 1418, near the year when Bishop Andrew 
was heard from last. "At that time," he says, " the barba- 
rians invaded Greenland from the neighboring shores and 
many churches were destroyed, only nine parish churches 
remaining. Many of the people were carried away pris- 
oners. Finally, however, the people rallied, and were at 
this period seeking help from the See of Rome. The 
Bishops of Skalholt and Holar, in Iceland, were, accord- 
ingly directed to examine the reports, and, ii found true, 
they were to send fitting priests to the relief of the Green- 
land Church. They were also empowered to consecrate 
a bishop. Bishop Andrew's administration was ended 
by this incursion of natives from the mainland of America 
who, probably, were a populous people resembling the 
Eskimo. ' 

' These incursions of the natives are recognized in Bardsen's 
narrative, where it is said that " he was chosen a captain to 



America by the Northmen, 33 

Nearly half a century more passes, and, while Colum- 
bus is absent on his first great voyage, Pope Alexander YI, 
1492-3, is found engaged in providing a bishop for Green- 
land. The bishop designated was Matthias, a poor monk 
of the order of St. Benedict, who was filled with zeal and 
compassion, and wished to consecrate himself to the cause 
of Greenland. How the communication was kept up 
with Greenland does not appear, but Pope Innocent YIII 
had heard of the fallen state of the people, who were with- 
out a priest, and nominated Matthias. Whether he actually 
reached Greenland cannot now be determined. Yet Matthias 
was resolved to go, while "Rome claimed the jurisdiction and 
made the appointment. 

The narrative of Bardsen affords a minute account of the 
condition of Greenland, dwelling upon the towns and vil- 
lages, together with the number and extent of the churches, 
giving an account of their revenues and the resom'ces of 
the country. Tlie cathedral had the benefit of the whale 
fishery and claimed the right to hunt the white bears. 

MONUMENTS AND RUINS IN GREENLAND. 

The villages and farms of the Northmen in Greenland 
were numerous. They probably numbered several hun- 
dred, the ruins now left being both abmidant and extensive. 
Near Igaliko, supposed to be the same as the ancient Ein- 
arsfiord, are the ruins of a church, probably the Cathedral y/^ 
of Gardar. It is called the Karkortok Church. It was of 
simple but massive architecture, and the material was taken 
from the neighboring cliffs. The stone is rough hewn, 
and but few signs of mortar are visible. It is fifty-one 
feet long and twenty-five wide. The north and south walls 
are over four feet thick, while the end walls are still 
more massive. 

Nor are other monuments wanting. At Igaliko, nine 

go to the west district to drive thence the Skraellings, but when 
he came there he found no men, neither Christians nor pagans. ' ' 
"Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson," etc., p. 95. 



34 Pke-Columbian Discoveet of 

miles from Julian's Hope, a Greenlander being one day 
employed in obtaining stones to repair his house, found 
among a pile of fragments a smooth stone that bore, what 
seemed to him, written characters. He mentioned the cir- 
cumstance to Mr. Mathieson, the colonial director a Julian's 
Hope, who inferred that it must be a runic stone. The 
man was so fortunate as to find it afterward, and Mr. 
Mathieson accordingly sent it to Copenhagen, where it 
arrived in the year 1830. The runes, which were perfectly 
distinct, showed that it was a tombstone. The inscription 
was translated as follows: 

' ' YioDis Mars Daughter Rests Here. 
May God Gladdkn Her Soul." 

Another, found in 1831, by the Rev. Mr. De Fries, 
principal of the Moravian Mission, bore the following 
inscription in runic letter: 

"Here Rests Hroar Kolgrimsson. " 

This stone, now in the museum at Copenhagen, was found 
built into the wall ovei the entrance of a Greenland house, 
having been taken for that purpose from a heap of ruins, 
about two miles north of Frederichsthal. The stone is 
more than three feet long, being eighteen inches wide in 
the narrowest part, and about five inchee thick. It bears 
every sign of a high antiquity.' 

One of the most interesting remains proving the Ice- 
landic occupation of Greenland, is the runic stone found 
by Parry, in 182-1, in the island of Kingiktorsoak, lying 
in 72° 55' N. and 56° 51' W. It contained a somewhat 
lengthy inscription. Copies of it were sent to three of 
the first scholars of the age, Finn Magnusson, Professor 
Rask, and Dr. Bryniulfson, who, without consulting one 
another, at once arrived at the same conclusion, and united 
in giving the following translation: 

' See Memoires de la Societe Royale Des Antiquaires du Nord, 
1 840- 1 844, Copenhagen, p. loi. 



America by the Northmen. 35 

'* Erling Sighvatson and Biorn Thord arson and Ein- 
DRiD Oddson, on Saturday before Ascension week, 
raised these marks and cleared ground, 1135."^ 

The Icelandic colonists in Greenland do not appear to 
have been confined to a small portion of territory. We 
find considerable relating to this subject in the invaluable 
chronicle of Ivar Bardsen,^ the steward of one of the 
bishops of Greenland; yet, though used extensively by 
Torfaeus in his Greenlandia^ modern researches in the 
country prove that it is in some minor respects faulty. 
In this chronicle, as in the Sagas, the colonists are spoken 
of as possessing horses, sheep and oxen; and their churches 
and religious houses appear to have been well supported. 

' These inscriptions are all in fair Runic letters, about which 
there can be no mistake, and are totally unlike the imaginary 
runes. 

^ See Egede's Greenland, p. xxv; Crantz's Greenland, 
vol. I, pp. 247-8; Purchas, His Filgrimes, vol. Ill, p. 518; 
Antiquitates Americana:, p. 300. See the Chronicle in 
Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson, Munsell, 1869. 

^ Historia Vinlandice Antiques seu Paries AmericcB Septen- 
trionalis, ubi Nominis ratio recenfetur sitis terrce ex dieruinbiu 
maliu?n Spatio expenditiir. Soli fertilatis £sr nicolarutn barbaries, 
peregrinorum tejnporarius incolatus & gesta, vici7iarum terrarutn 
nomina and fades Antiquitatibus Islandicis in lucem producta 
exponunta per Thormodum Torfceutn Rerum Norvegicarum His- 
toriographum Regium. Havnice Ex Typographeo Regies Magist, 
and Universil 1705. Impensis Authorise 

Gronlandia Antiqua seu Gronlandics descriptio, ubi coeli 
marisqve nalura, term, locorutn 6^ villarum situs, animalum 
terrestrium aqvatilivmqve varia genera, Gentis origo 6-' incre- 
menta, status Politicus cs^ Ecclesiasticus, gesta memorabilia 6^ 
vicissitiidines, ex antiqvis memoriis, prxcipue Islandicis qva fieri 
potuit industria collecta exponuntur, authore Thormo Torfceo, 
Rerum Nori'egicarum Hisforiographo Rcgio, Havia: iapud 
Hieron ; Christ: Paulli Reg: Universit : Bibliopolatn. Anno 
1715. 



36 Pbe-Columbian Discovery of 



EXPLORATION IN GREENLAND. 

Much was done, it appears, in the way of exploring 
the extreme northern portions of the country known as 
Nordrsetur. In tlie year 1266, a voyage was made under the 
auspices of some of the priests, and the adventurers pene- 
trated north of Lancaster Sound, reaching about the same 
latitude that was obtained by Parry in 1827, This expedi- 
tion was of sufficient importance to justify some notice 
of it here. The account is found in Rafn's Antiquitates 
AtnericaiKB (p. 269). It sets out with the statement that 
a narrative of the expedition was sent by Haldor, a 
priest, to Amald, the Chaplain of King Magnus in Nor- 
way. They sailed out of Kroksfiardarheidi in an open 
boat, and met with southerly winds and thick weather, 
which forced them to let the boat drive before the wind. 
"When the weather cleared they saw a n amber of islands, 
together with whales and seals and bears. They made 
their way into the most distant portion of the sea, and 
observed glaciers south of them as far as the eye could 
reach. They also saw indications of the natives, who were 
called Skra?lings, but they did not land, on account of 
the number of the bears. They, therefore, put about, 
and laid their course southward for nearly three days, 
finding more islands with traces of the natives. They saw 
a mountain which they called Snsefell, and, on St. James' 
day, July 25, they had a severe weather, being obliged to 
row long and hard. It froze during the night in that 
region, but the sun was above the horizon both day and 
night. When the sun was on the southern meridian, 
and a man lay down crosswise in a six-oared boat, the 
shadow of the gunwale toward the sun would reach as 
far as his feet, which, of course, indicates that the sun 
was very low. Afterward they all returned in safety 
to Gardar.^ Rafn fixes the position ol the point attained 
by the expedition in the parallel of 75° 46'. Such an 

* Antiquitates Ai/iencancc, p. xxxix. 



America by the Northmen. 37 

achievement at that day indicates a degree of boldness quite 
6urT)rising. ^ 

THE DECLINE OF GREENLAND. 

Of the reality and importance of the Greenland colony 
there exists no doubt, notwithstanding the records are so 
meagre and fragmentary. ^ It maintained its connection 
with the mother countries for a period of not less than five 
hundred years; yet it finally disappeared and was nearly 
forgotten. 

Many causes led to the suspension of communication, 
though it is difficult to account for the extinction of the 
colony, if it actually became extinct. It does not appear 
ever to have been in much danger from the Skriiellings, 
though, on one occasion, in 1349, or later, the natives at- 
tacked the western settlement, it is said, and killed eighteen 
Greenlanders of Icelandic lineage, carrying away two boys 
captives.^ 

Trade was carried on with Denmark until the end of the 
fourteenth century, although the voyages were not regular. 
The last bishop, Andrew, was sent out in 1408, and Pro- 
fessor Finn Magnussen has established the fact that he offi- 
ciated in the cathedral at Gardar in 1409.* A pagan in- 
vasion soon followed. 

* Antiquitates Americance, p. xxxix. 

' For the account of the manuscripts upon which our knowl- 
edge of Greenland is founded, see Antiquitates AmericancB, 
p. 255. 

' Islenzkir Ann&lar. 

* In that year parties are known to have contracted marriage 
at Gardar, from whom Finn Magnussen and other distinguished 
men owe their descent. Hakluyt quotes Lambord, to the effect 
that Arthur made his way to Greenland. The Icelandic chron- 
icles distinctly say that, half a century before the voyage of 
Eric, a great country was known at the west, being called "Ire- 
land the Great." So far as we know, this country was first 
reached by the Irish, whose prior discovery was conceded by 
the Icelanders. The Irish had described it, evidently, as a land 



38 Pbe-Coltjmbian Discovery of 

After this time nothing appears to be certain. As we 
have seen, Pope Innocent VIII, 1484, had information 
about Greenland, but the date is not given. Alexander 
VI says that " no ship is supposed to have touched there 
during eighty years last past." To this might be opposed 
the statement that "Wormius is said to have told Peyrere 
of his having read in a Danish manuscript, that down to 
the year 1484, there was a company of more than forty 
sailors at Bergen, in Norway, who still traded with Green- 
land.* But this is doubtful, as the revenue at that time be- 
longed to Queen Margaret of Denmark, no one could visit 
Greenland without the royal permission. A company of 
sailors driven upon the Greenland coast, came near suf- 
fering the penalty of the law on their return. Crantz^ 
says, that "about the year 1530, Bishop Amund of Skal- 
holt in Iceland is said to have been driven by a storm, on 
his return from Norway, so near the coast of Greenland 
by Heriulfness, that he could see the people driving in their 
cattle. But he did not land, because just then a good wind 
arose, which carried the ship the same night to Iceland. 
The Icelander, Biiernvon Skardfa, who relates this, also 
says further, that a Hamburgh mariner, Jon Greenlander 
by name, was driven three times on the Greenland island, 
where he saw such fishers huts for drying fish as they have 
in Iceland, but saw no men; further, that pieces of shat- 
tered boats, nay, in the year 1625, an entire boat, fas- 
tened together with sinews and wooden pegs, and pitched 
with seal blubber, have been driven ashore at Iceland from 

of verdure, while the Saga says that Eric applied the name of 
"Greenland" to the part he visited, not from any peculiar fit- 
ness but from motives of policy, saying that "men would be 
persuaded to go to a land with so good a name." Possibly 
the term "Greenland" was originally applied to the whole of 
North America, as were other names that finally came to have 
a local meaning. See "Verrazano the Explorer." 

' Egede's Greenland^ p. xlvii. 

* Ibid., xlviii. 



America by the Northmen. 39 

time to time ; and since then thej found once an oar with 
a sentence written in Runic letters: Oft var ek dasa, dur 
elk di'othik, that is, 'Oft was I tired when I drew thee.' '" 
It would at least appear that there was reason for believ- 
ing the colony in existence in 1484 or 1492. 

LOST GREENLAND FOUND. 

But, whatever may be the value of the preceding state- 
ments of Skardfa, it is clear that Greenland was never 
forgotten. The first person who proposed to re-open com- 
munication was Eric Walkendorf, Archbishop of Dron- 
theim, who familiarized himself with tlie subject, and made 
every preparation necessary in order to re-establish the col- 
ony; but, having fallen under the displeasure of King 
Christian II, he left the country and went to Rome, where 
he died in the year 1521. Thus his plans came to nothing.* 
Christian III abrogated the decree of Queen Margaret, 
prohibiting trade with Greenland without the royal per- 
mission, and encouraged voyages by fitting out a vessel 
to search for Greenland, which, however, was not found. 
In 1578, Frederic II sent out Magnus Henningsen. He 
came in sight of the land, but does not appear to have 
had the courage to proceed further. Crantz, in his work 
on Greenland, gives an account of the number of voyages 
undertaken to the coast, but says " that at last Greenland 
was so buried in ol)livion that one hai»dly^ would believe 
that such a land as Greenland was inhabited by Christian 
Norwegians."^ 

It remained, therefore, for Hans Egede,* in 1721, to re- 
open communication. Columbus himself did not endure 
much greater mortification than did this good man foi the 

' Crantz's Greenland, vol. I, p. 264. 

" Ibid., p. 274. 

' Ibid., p. 279. 

* Hans Egede was a Protestant clergyman, and minister of 
the congregation at Vogen, in the northern part of Norway, 
where he was highly esteemed and beloved. He spent fifteen 



40 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

space of eleven years, during which period he labored to 
persuade the Danish and Norwegian authorities to under- 
take the re-discovery. But his faith and zeal finally over- 
came all hostility and ridicule. On the 2d day of May, 
1721, he went on board the Hope, with his wife and four 
young children, and landed at Ball's river in Greenland 
on the third of the following month. Here he spent the 
best portion of his life in attempting to teach the natives, 
and in making those explorations the results of which 
filled the mind of Europe with surprise, affording confir- 
mation of the truthfulness of the Sagas. 

THE CHARACTER AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NORTHMEN. 

Let US now return to the consideration of the Icelandic 
voyages to the American Continent, though not without 
first seeking a better acquaintance with the men by whom 
they were performed. 

We have already seen that the iJ^orthraen were a people 
of no inferior attainments. Indeed, they constituted a 
most enterprising portion of the race, and, on general prin- 
ciples, we should, therefore, view them as fitted, even 
above all the men of their time, for the important work 
of exploration beyond the seas. They had made them- 
selves known in every part of the civilized world by their 
daring as soldiers and navigators. Straying away into the 
distant east whence they originally came, we see them lay- 
ing the foundation of the Russian empire, swinging their 
battle-axes in the streets of Constantinople, carving their 
mystic runes upon the Lions of the Areopagus, and filling 
the heart of even the great Charlemagne with dismay.^ 
Says Dasent, when summing up their achievements: 

years as a missionary in Greenland, and died at Copenhagen, 
1758. Reference here is exclusively to the Scandinavians, as 
we remember voyages like those of Davis and Frobisher from 
England. 

' The motto on the sword of Roger Guiscard was : 
Appulus et Calaber Siculus mihi Servit et Afer. 



Amekica by the Northmen. 41 

**In Byzantium they are the leaders of the Greek em- 
peror's body guard, and the main support of his totter- 
ing throne. From France, led by Rollo, they tear away 
her fairest province and found a long line of kings. In 
Saxon England they are the bosom friends of such kings 
as Athelstane, and the sworn foes of Ethelred the Un- 
ready. In Danish England they are the foremost among 
the thanes of Canute, Swein and Hardicanute, and keep 
down the native population with an iron heel. In Nor- 
man England," he continues, " the most serious opposi- 
tion the conqueror meets with is from the colonists of his 
own race settled in Northumbria. He wastes their lands 
with lire and sword, and drives them across the border, 
where we still find their energy, their perseverance, and 
their speech existing in the lowland Scotch. In Norway 
they dive into the river with King Olaf Tryggvesson, the 
best and strongest champion of his age, and hold him down 
beneath the waves so long that the bystanders wonder 
whether either king or Icelander will ever reappear on the 
surface.' Some follow Saint Olaf in his crusades against 
the old (pagan) faith. '^ Some are his obstinate foes and 
assi?t at his martyrdom. Many follow Harold the Stern 
to England when he goes to get his ' seven feet ' of Eng- 
lish earth, and almost to a man they get their portion of the 
same soil, while their names grow bright in song and 
story." Finally, " From Iceland as a base, they push on 
to Greenland and colonize it: nay, they discover America 
in those half -decked barks." ^ 

THE SHIPS OF THE NOKTHJilEN. 

The Northmen were excellent navigators. They were, 
moreover, it has been claimed, the first to learn the art of 
sailing on the wind. They had good sea-going vessels, 

' See Laing's Hei/nskringia , vol. II, p. 40. This refers to 
his swimming match with Kiarten the Icelander, in which the 
king was beaten. 

' See Saga of Saint (not king) Olaf. 

' Des Antiquaires du Nord, 1859. 



42 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

some of which were of large size. We liave an account in 
the Saga of Olaf Tryggvesson of one that in some respects 
was remarkable. It is said that ' ' the winter after King Olaf 
Tryggvesson came from Halegoland, he had a great ship 
built at Ledehammer,^ which was larger than any ship in 
the country, and of which the beam-knees are still to be 
seen. The length of the keel that rested upon the grass 
was seventy-four ells. Thorberg Skafting was the man's 
name who was the master builder of the ship, but there 
were many others besides; some to fell the wood, some to 
shape, some to make nails, some to carry timber, and all 
that was used was the best. The ship was both long and 
broad and high sided, and strongly timbered. . . . 
The ship was a dragon, built after the one that the king 
had captured in Halegoland, but it was far longer and 
more carefully put together in all her parts. The Long 
Serpent (her name) had thirty-four benches for rowers. 
The head and arched tail were both gilt, and the bul- 
warks were as high as in sea-going ships. This ship was 
the best and most costly ever built in Norway. ' ' ^ 

' Ledehammer. The point of land near the house of Lede, 
just below Drontheim. 

■•' Laing's Neimskringia, vol. I, p. 457. It is related that 
while they were planking the ship, " it happened that Thor- 
berg had to go home to his farm upon some urgent business; 
and as he stayed there a long time, the ship was planked upon 
both sides when he came back. In the evening the king went 
out and Thorberg with him, to see how the ship looked, and 
all said that never was seen so large and fine a ship of war. 
Then the king went back to the town. Early the next morning 
the king came back again to the ship, and Thorberg with him. 
The carpenters were there before them, but all were standing 
idle with their hands across. The king asked, * What is the 
matter? ' They said the ship was ruined; for somebody had gone 
from stem to stern, and cut one deep notch after another down 
the one side of the planking. When the king came nearer he 
saw that it was so, and said with an oath, ' The man shall die 
who has thus ruined the ship out of malice, if he can be found, 



America by the Northmen. 43 

Laing computes the tonnage of this ship at about nine 
hundred and forty-two tons, thus giving a length of about 
one hundred feet, which is nearly the size oi a forty-two 
gun ship. By steam tonnage it would give a capacity of 
a little less than three hundred tons, and one hundred and 
twenty horse power. "We apprehend, however, that the 
estimate is sufficiently large; yet we are nol concerned to 
show any great capacity for the Icelandic ships. All the 
vessels employed in the early times on the American coasts 
were small. The Anna Pink, a craft that accompanied 
Lord Anson in his expedition around the world, measured 
only sixteen tons.* The vessels of the Northmen were 
every way adapted for ocean voyages. 

and I will give a great reward to him who finds him out.' 
* I can tell you, king, ' says Thorberg, * who has done this piece 
of work.' ' I don't think that any one is so likely to find it out 
as thou art. ' Thorberg says : ' I will tell you, king, who did it, 
I did it myself.' The king says, ' Thou must restore it all to 
the same condition as before, or thy life shall pay for it. ' Then 
Thorberg went and chipped the planks until the deep notches 
were all smoothed and made even with the rest; and the king 
and all present declared that the ship was much handsomer on 
the side of the hull which Thorberg had chipped, and bade him 
shape the other side in the same way and gave him great thanks 
for the improvement. " 

^ A few years ago two very ancient vessels, which probably 
belonged to the seventh century, were exhumed on the coast 
of Denmark, seven thousand feet from the sea, where they 
were scuttled and sunk. The changes in the coast finally left 
them imbedded in the sand. One vessel was seventy-two feet 
long, and nine feet wide amidships. The other was forty-two 
feet long, and contained two eight-sided spars, twenty-four feet 
long. The bottoms were covered with mats of withes for the 
purpose of keeping them dry. Among the contents was a 
Damascened sword, with runes, showing that the letter existed 
among the Northmen in the seventh century. See Horsford's 
notice of an ancient ship, Address at the unveiling of the 
Statue of Leif Erickson, p. 21. Also illustrations in Narra- 



44 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

In nautical knowledge, also, they were not behind the 
age. The importance of cultivating the studj of naviga- 
tion was fully understood. The Raudulf of Oesterdal, in 
Norway, taught his son to calculate the course of the sun 
and moon, and how to measure time by the stars. In 1520 
Olaus Magnus complained that the knowledge of the peo- 
ple in this respect had been diminished. In that noble 
work called Speculum Regale^ " The Royal Mirror," the 
Icelander is taught to make an especial study of commerce 
and naWgation, of the divisions of time and the movements 
of the heavenly bodies, together with arithmetic, the rig- 
ging of vessels and morals} Without a high degree of 
knowledge they could never have achieved their many 
voyages. 

THE SAGAS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

We find that the Northmen were well acquainted with 
other parts of the world, and that they possessed all the 
means of reaching the Continent in the west. We come, 
therefore, to the question: Did the Northmen actually 
discover and explore the coast of the country now known 
as America ? It is, however, already answered. 

tive and Critical History, I, 62-4. These two ships are pre- 
served in the Museum at Christiania, Norway, and were in- 
spected, with their contents, by the writer in 1892. 

^ The people of Iceland were always noted for their superior- 
ity in this respect over their kinsmen in Denmark and Norway. 
There is one significant fact bearing on this point, which is 
this : that, while a few of the people of Iceland went at an early 
period to engage in piratical excursions with the vikings of 
Norway, not a single pirate ship ever sailed from Iceland. 
Such ways were condemned altogether at an early day, while 
various European nations continued to sanction piracy down 
to recent periods. Again it should be remembered that in 
Iceland duelling was also solemnly declared illegal as early as 
loii, and in Norway the following year; while in England it 
did not cease to be a part of the judicial process until 1818. 
See Sir Edmund Head's Viga-Glum Saga, p. 120. 



America by the Northmen. 45 

No one can now say that the idea wears any appear- 
ance of imprdbability, for there was certainly nothing 
wonderful in the exploit. After conceding the fact that 
colonies of the Northmen existed in Greenland for at least 
four hundred years, we must prepare ourselves for some- 
thing of this kind. Indeed it is well nigh, if not alto- 
gether unreasonable, to suppose that a sea-faring people 
like the Northmen could live for centuries within a 
short voyage of this Continent and never become aware 
of its existence. A belief like this implies a rare credu- 
lity. Whoever is capable of holding it must be capable 
of believing almost anything. 

But on this point we are not left to conjecture. The de- 
cision, in the absence of proofs like those furnished by 
Greenland, turns upon a question of fact. The point is 
this : Do the vianuscrijpts which describe these 'voyages helong 
to the pre- Columhian age ? If so, then the Northmen 
are entitled to the credit of the discovery of America 
subsequently to the Irish period. That these manu- 
scripts belong to the Pre-Columbian age is as capable of 
demonstration as the fact that the writings of Homer ex- 
isted prior to the age of Christ. Before intelligent per- 
sons deny either of these points they must first succeed 
in blotting out numberless pages of well-known history. 
The manuscript in which we have versions of all the Sagas 
relating to America is found in the celebrated Codex 
Flatoiensis, a work that was finished in the year 13 8 Y, 
or 1395 at the latest. This collection, made with great 
care, is now preserved in its integrity ^ in the archives of 

' Those who imagine that these manuscripts, while of pre- 
Columbian origin, have been tampered with and interpolated, 
show that they have not the faintest conception of the state of 
the question. The accounts of the voyages of the Northmen 
to America form the fra7newo7-k of Sagas which would actu- 
ally be destroyed by the elimination of the narratives. There 
is only one question to be decided, and that is the date of the 
compositions. 



46 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

Copenhagen, These manuscripts were for a time supposed 
to be lost, but were ultimately found safely lodged in their 
repository in the monastery library of the island of Flato, 
from whence they were transferred to Copenhagen with a 
large quantity of other literary material collected from the 
various localities. If these Sagas which refer to America 
were interpolations, it would have early become apparent, 
as abundant means exist for detecting frauds; yet most 
competent critics who have examined the whole question 
do not find any evidence that invalidates their historical 
statements. In the absence, therefore, of respectable tes- 
timony to the contrary, we accept it as a fact that the 
Sagas relating to America are the productions of the men 
who gave them in their present form nearly, if not quite, 
an entire century before the age of Columbus. 

It might also be argued, if it were at all necessary, that, 
if these Sagas were post-Columbian compositions drawn 
up by Icelanders jealous of the fame of the Genoese navi- 
gator, we should certainly be able to point out something 
either in their structure, bearing, or style by which it would 
be indicated. Yet such is not the case. These writings 
reveal no anxiety to show the connection of the I^orthmen 
with the great land lying at the west. The authors do not 
see any thing remarkable or meritorious in the explora- 
tions, which were conducted for the purpose of gain. Those 
marks which would certainly have been impressed by a 
more modern writer forging a historical composition de- 
signed to show an occupation of the country before the 
time of Columbus, are wholly wanting. There is no 
special pleading or rivalry, and no desire to show prior 
and superior knowledge of the country to which the navi- 
gators had from time to time sailed. We discover only a 
straightforward, honest endeavor to tell the story of cer- 
tain men's lives. This is done in a simple, artless way, and 
with every indication of a desire to mete out even-handed 
justice to all. Candid readers who come to the subject 
with minds free from prejudice will be powerfully impressed 
with the belief that they are reading authentic histories 



America by the Northmen. 47 

written by honest men, who also freely concede the pri- 
ority of the Irish, 

the literature of ICELAND. 

Before speaking particularly of the substance of the 
Sagas, it will be necessary to trace briefly the origin and 
history of Icelandic literature in general. 

We have already mentioned the fact that Iceland was 
mainly settled by Norwegians of superior qualities. This 
superiority was always maintained, though it was some- 
what slow in manifesting itself in the form of literature. 
Prior to the year 1000, the Runic alphabet had existed in 
Iceland, but it was generally used for the simplest purposes. ' 
History and literature derived no advantage, as the runes 
were used chiefly for monumental inscriptions, and for mot- 
toes and charms on such things as drinking cups, sacrificial 
vessels and swords. Yet the people were not without a 
kind of intellectual stimulus. It had long been the custom 
to preserve family and general histories, and recite them 
from memory as occasion seemed to warrant. This was 
done with a wonderful degree of accuracy and fidelity, 
by men more or less trained for the purpose, whose per- 
formances at times were altogether surprising. They also 
had their scalds or poets, who were accustomed both to 
repeat the old songs and poems and extemporize new ones. 
Every good fighter was expected to prove himself a poet 
when the emergency required it. The poet was strongly 
encouraged. "When Eyvind Skialdespilder sang his great 
song in praise of Iceland every peasant in the island, it 

' The word rune comes from 7-yn, a furrow. Odin has the 
credit of the invention of runes, yet they are probably of 
Phenician origin. They were sometimes used for poetical 
purposes. Halmund, in the Grettir Saga (see Sabing Baring- 
Gould's Iceland^, says to his daughter: " Thou shalt now 
listen whilst I relate my deeds and sing thereof a song, which 
thou shalt afterward cut upon a staff." This indicates the 
training the memory must have undergone among the North- 
men. 



48 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

is said, contributed three pieces of silver to buy a clasp for 
his mantle of liftj marks' weight. These scalds were 
sometimes employed by the politicians, and on one occa- 
sion a satire so nettled Harold, king of Denmark, that he 
sent a fleet to ravage Iceland, and made the repetition an 
offense punishable with death. The Icelandic poets also 
went to England, to the Orkneys and to ISTorway, where, 
at the king's court they were held in the highest estimation, 
furnishing poetical effusions on every public or private 
occasion which demanded the exercise of their gifts. The 
degree to which they had cultivated tlieir memories was 
surprising. Old Blind Skald Stuf could repeat between 
two and three hundred poems. The Ssga-men had the 
same power of memory. This we know may be improved 
to a very great extent by cultivation. But v/ith the advent 
of the Church came the Koman alphabet, which proved 
an easy method of expressing thought. Christianity, 
however, did not stop here. Its service was a reasonable 
service, and demanded of its votaries a high intelligence. 
The priest of Odin need do no more than recite a short 
vow, or mutter a brief prayer. He had no divine records 
to read and to explain. But the minister of the new re- 
ligion came with a system that demanded broad learning 
and culture. His calling required the aid of books, and 
the very sight of books proved a mental stimulus to this 
hard-brained race. Besides, Christianity opened to the 
minds of the people new fields of thouglit. These rude 
sons of war began to understand that certain victories, 
not to be despised, might be gained through peace; and 
erelong letters came to be somewhat familiar to the public 
mind. The earliest written efforts very naturally related 
to the lives of the Saints, which on Sundays and holy days 
were read in public for the edification of the people. Dur- 
ing the eleventh century these exercises shared the public 
attention with those of the professional Saga-man, who still 
labored to hand down the oral versions of the national history 
and traditions. In the beginning of the twelfth century the 
use of letters was extended, and at last the Saga-man found 



America by the Nokthmen. 49 

his occupation gone, the national history now being gath- 
ered up by zealous students and scribes, and committed 
to the more lasting custody of the written page. Among 
the writers was Ari Frode, who began the compilation of 
the Icelandic Dooms-day Booh, which contained a record 
of the early settlers. Scarcely less useful was Ssemund 
the "Wise, who collected the poetical literature of the North 
and arranged it in a goodly tome. The example of these 
great men was followed, and by the end of the twelfth 
century all the Sagas relating to the pagan period of the 
country had been reduced to writing. This was an era of 
great literary activity, and the century following showed 
the same zeal. Finally Iceland possessed a body of prose 
literature superior in quantity and value to that of any 
other modern nation of its time.- Indeed the people of 
Europe at this period had no prose or other species of 
literature really worthy of the name ; and, taken altogether, 
the Sagas formed the first prose literature in any modern 
language spoken by the people. ^ Says Sir Edmund Head, 
"No doubt there were translations in Anglo-Saxon from 
the Latin by Alfred, of an earlier date, but there was in 
truth no vernacular literature. I cannot name," he says, 
"any work in high or low German prose which can be 
carried back to this period. In France, prose writing 
cannot be said to have begun before the time of Yillehar- 
douin (1204), and Joinville (1202). Castilian prose cer- 
tainly did not commence before the time of Alphonso X 
(1252). Don Juan Manvel, the author of the Conde 
Lucanor, was not born till 1282. The Cronica General de 
Espafia was not composed till at least the middle of the 
thirteenth century. About the same time the language of 
Italy was acquiring that softness and strength which was 

' For a list of many Icelandic works, see the Introduction of 
Laing's Heimsk7-ingla. See also Horn's History of the Litera- 
ture of the Scandinavian North. Translated by Anderson, 
Chicago, 1884. Also the work of William and Mary Howitt. 

"See Sir Edmuud Head's Viga Glum Saga, pp. viii and ix. 
4 



50 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

destined to appear so conspicuously in the prose of Boc- 
caccio, and tlie writers of the next century."^ 

Thus, while some nations -were backward in literature, 
the intellect of Iceland was in active exercise, and works 
like the Eddas and the Heimskringla, were conserved, being 
works inspired by a lofty genius that will rank with the 
writings of Homer and Herodotus while time endures. 

In the beginning of the sixteenth century, however, 
the literature of Iceland reached the period of its greatest 
excellence and began to decline. Books continued to be 
written, but works of genius were wanting. Yet in Ice- 
land there has never been an absence of literary indus- 
try, while during the recent period the national reputation 
has been sustained by Finn Magnussen and similar great 
names. One hundred years before the Plymouth colonists, 
following in the track of Thorwald Ericson, landed on the 
sands of Cape Cod, the people of Iceland had set up the 
printing press, and produced numerous works both in the 
native language and the Latin tongue. 

It is to this people, whom Saxo Grammaticus points out 
as a people distinguished for their devotion to letters, that 
we are indebted for the narratives of the pre-Columbian 
voyages to America. Though first arranged for oral reci- 
tation, the Sagas, as we have seen, were afterward com- 
mitted to manuscript, the earliest of which perhaps do not 
now exist, while the latest were those preserved in the cele- 
brated Flato collection nearly a century before the re-dis- 
covery of America by Columbus. 

It is no longer necessary to spend time in this connection 
since the character and value of the Icelandic writings have 
come to be generally acknowledged, and especially since 
scholars and antiquaries like Humboldt and Max Muller 
have fully acknowledged their authenticity and authority. 

' Ibid. Of course there was more or less poetrj', yet poetry 
is early developed among the rudest nations, while good prose 
proves that a people have become highly advanced in mental 
culture. 



America by thk Northmen. 51 

early english voyages to iceland. 

It is proper to notice here the fact that not a few have 
imao;ined that the clamis of the Northmen have been 
brought forward to detract from the fame of Columbus; 
yet, nothing could be farther from the truth, since no one 
denies that it was by the voyages of Col ambus that the 
Continent became of great value to the Old World, though 
we must always remember that North America is chiefly 
indebted to the Cabots, who were Catholics sent out, like 
Columbus, by a Catholic king. 

But nothing should deter us from inquiring into the re- 
lation held by Columbus to the pilots and geographers of 
the North,* especially since so many fancy thai the northern 
regions were little visited at the period of his activity. "We 
find, however, that in the fourteenth century the fisheries 
were commonly pursued around Iceland, whose people 
were in regular communication with Greenland. The 
English also knew Greenland at the time, though, in com- 
mon with the people of Iceland and Norway, they did not 
appreciate the importance of this knowledge. In the four- 
teenth century, proof is found both in the Icelandic and 
English annals, of the connection between the two coun- 
tries. The Icelandic contains indications oi the arrival of 
English ships, but it is clear that their coming was so well 
known as to gain only a casual allusion, the interest 
standing connected with the news brought. The entries 
were made at the time, and are now set down in chrono- 
logical order, in accordance with the language of the origi- 
nal. Let us, therefore, notice these entries. 

In 1348, news reached Iceland that in England the mor- 
tality was 60 great that 200,000 persons had died.^ The 

' Bulletin de Geographic, 1858, p. 177. Are Frode in 1608, 
speaking of the visit paid to Iceland by Floke Vilgerderson, 
says that in those times men had no loadstone in the northern 
countries. The Bible Guyot, 1150, speaks of the loadstone 
as un pierre laida et brumiere. 

* Islenzkir Anndlar, Hafniae, p. 276. The Icelandic is as 



62 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

next year the death of English sailors at Bergen, in Norway 
opposite Iceland, was reported, and recorded in the Sagas,' 
This is all that we find at present in connection with the 
fourteenth century in Iceland; but the reference of the 
Saga to the great mortality in England is confirmed by 
Stow's "Annals," which slate that the plague reached 
England in 1348, touching the seaports first. Thence, no 
doubt, the news was at once carried by fishermen to Ice- 
land." If the voyages of the English to Iceland had pos- 
sessed greater interest, there would have been some more 
definite notice in the Sagas. We are free, however, to 
admit that, early in this century, the merchant trade may 
have been small, as in 1328 Edward III does not mention 
Iceland in his Pro Mercatoribus Extraneis. Nor does he 
mention Denmark or Norway, but these are included in 
the general language. Omnium aliarum Terrarum et lo- 
corum extranorunt,^ Nevertheless, the mandate of Edward 
III, dated March 18, 1354, recognizes the fact that the 
king maintained a fleet for service in the " parts Boreal," 
John de Haddon being the Admiral.* It was probablj de- 
signed to protect the fishermen and merchants from pirates 
around the north of Britain. 

In the Icelandic annals of the fifteenth century, the first 
clear entry is that of 1407, when news was received of the 
death of the Archbishop of York.^ In 1412, it was recorded 
that five English sailors had separated from their ship and 
wintered in the island.^ In 1413, ' 'thirty more fishing vessels 
came from England." Some of them were blown to the 
northern part of Iceland, and possibly to the Greenland coast.' 

follows : Mannfall ogurlegt a Englefidi sva at tv'd hundred thou- 
sand dait nidr. 

' Ibid., 278. 

» Stow's Annals, p. 245, Ed. 1631. 

* Rymer's Foedera, IV, 361 

* Ibid., V, 778. 

* Annalar, p. 382. 
•Ibid., p. 386. 

* Ibid., p. 388. 



Amekica by the Northmen. 53 

In 1415, six English ships sailed to Iceland, and made 
their port in the Westmann Islands.' In 1416, six ships 
anchored in Hafnafiord, in the south-west of Iceland.- In 
1419, many English ships were wrecked on the coast of Ice- 
land, and a large number of lives were lost.^ The "Annals," 
in the present compilation, end with the year 1430, and 
these six entries are all that we find. If carefully consid- 
ered, however, it will appear that these mentions really 
form memorabilia. This will be seen by turning to the 
English annals for the corresponding period. The first 
reference to Iceland in the Fcedera is that oi 1415, when 
Henry Y, for the satisfaction of the King of Denmark, 
ordered that during the year none of his subjects should 
presume to visit any of " the coasts of the islands belonging 
to Denmark and Norway, and especially to the island of 
Iceland," for the purpose of fishing or trading, '' otherwise 
than according to the ancient custom" {aliter quam anti- 
quitus fieri constcevit).* This notice was served upon the 
authorities of the various seaports of England. Here, 
then, we learn, in connection with 1415, that in the ancient 
times voyages to Iceland had become frequent. It is clear 
from the complaint of the Danish king that the old rules 
respecting trafiic had been broken habitually, and that 
they were now to be observed, at least for one year. Of 
the exact nature of the ancient law we cannot speak, but it 
would appear as though the prohibition related to the shore 
fisheries, which they were not to intrude upon, and hence, 
when the English went to Iceland, in 1415, they harbored 
off the coast of the "Westmann Islands. The arrival of 
the ships, under the circumstances, formed a noticeable 
event, and for this reason it was recorded. The Icelandic 

' Ibid., p. 390. 

' Ibid., p. 392. 

' Ibid., p. 394. — In this connection the author employs 
material given by him in his _ Inventio Fortunata, devoted to 
the subject of Arctic Discovery. 

* "Foedera,'' IX, 322. 



64 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

Annals add, immediately after mentioning their arrival, 
that " the ships brought letters from the King of Eng- 
land to the people and the chief men of Iceland. ' ' 

There is, then, a complete agreement between the Eng- 
lish and the Icelandic Annals, both showing that an English 
fleet visited Iceland in 1415 — a circumstance which should 
go very far to establish the general value and credibility 
of those records of a distant age.^ 

In 1416, the English were again in Iceland, but the 
Feeder a does not mention voyages until 1436, when Henry 
VI issued a license to John, the Icelandic Bishop of Ho- 
lem, then in London, authorizing him to engage John May, 
with his ship " Catherine," for a voyage to Iceland, where 
May, evidently an old voyager, was to act as his attorney, 
and transact certain business for him, the Bishop himself 
not wishing to undertake the voyage.^ In 1436, Kich- 
ard Weston, of London, a " stockfishmonger, " was well 
known by the Icelanders.^ In 1440, Henry VI sent two 
ships to Iceland, with supplies. It was feared that with- 
out this aid from England, the sacraments even would be 
omitted, there being neither wine nor salt in the country, 
and only milk and water {lac et aquam)} Eight years later, 
we have seen, Pope Nicholas V was writing about the dis- 
tressed condition of the Church in Greenland. 

In connection with the year 1445, another voyage is indi- 
cated by the Admiralty " Black Book," action having been 
taken against William Byggeman, and two men of Lynn, 

' This agreement between the English and Icelandic author- 
ities was pointed out for the first time, in Invcntio Fortunata. 

'^ Fcedera, x, 645 and 659, Ed. 1877. With an Icelandic 
bishop residing for the time in London, the English must cer- 
tainly have learned through him of Greenland and Vinland. 

° Ibid., X, 762. These supplies were sent to the Bishop of 
Skalholt, who alone was authorized by the Synod of Denmark 
to supply the elements of the sacraments to the churches. 
See Kirchengefchichte von Da7iemark una Norwegan (Miinter), 
III, 16. 

* Ibid., X, 645. 



America by the Northmen. 55 

who visited Icleand in a " dogger," called the " Trinity." 
They kidnapped a boy whom they brought to Swetesham 
and held in servitude, contrary to law.^ 

In 1450, a treaty was made between the Kings of Den- 
mark and England, which prohibited trading in Iceland; 
but a special provision of Parliament exempted Thomas 
Canynges, Mayor of Bristol, from the prohibition, in con- 
eideration of his great services to Iceland. He was accord- 
ingly allowed to send two ships thither to load with tish 
or other commodities. His trade with Iceland was a mat- 
ter of general knowledge, and throws additional light upon 
a certain remark by Columbus. 

It should be remembered also, that the Zeno Brothers 
made their voyage to Greenland, and a part of the Ameri- 
can coast called " Estotiland," and " Drogeo," in 1400. 
It suffices here to say: The Zeno Map, published with the 
narrative in 1558, shows that the Zeno family had a knowl- 
edge of Greenland that could have been obtained only dur- 
ing the pre-Columbian times. ^ Pope Innocent YIII 
may have heard of Greenland through Zeno. 

In this connection the investigator must not overlook the 
voyage of Skolnus the Pole, which took place in 1476. 
Hakluyt says that this voyage is mentioned by Gemma 

' Item quod Willelums Byggemane de Suetesham magister 
Gujusdem navis vocatae le Trinyte, dictae vulgariter dogger, 
Johannis Pigot et Henrici Sorysbi de Lenna Episcopi, circa fes- 
tum Exuhacionis Sanctse Crucis anno dicti regis vicesimo tertio, 
cepit unum pueram in partibus de Islandia, et ipsum duxit in 
dictu navi ad ibidem usque Suetsham, adsibi serviendum, contra 
statu ta regia in hoc parte facta." — Monuinenta Juridicia (Black 
Book), I, 273. 

" On Zeno, see "The Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson." p. 
5 j ** The Northmen in Maine," p. 30. Also a full discussion of 
the subject in the Hakluyt Society's edition of the voyage, 
edited by Major. The last unsuccessful attempt to invalidate 
the voyage of Zeno is that of Mr. Lucas, London, 1898. On 
this see notice in "The American Historical Review," July, 
1899. 



56 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

Frisius and Girava.^ It is certainly referred to on an an- 
cient globe of about 1540, preserved in Paris, and known 
as " The Rouen Globe," whereon, near the north-west 
coast of Greenland, is a legend declaring that Skolnus 
reached that point in 1476. This globe seems to ante- 
date Goniara (1553). 

Next attention should be directed to the voyage of 
Columbus to the North, of which the Genoese himself 
gives the following account: 

" In the month of February, 1477, I sailed a lumdred 
leagues beyond the island of Thyle, the southern part of 
which is distant from the equinoctial 73 degrees, and not 
63, as some wish it to be; nor does it lie upon the line where 
Ptolemy's west begins, but much more toward the west. 
And to this island, which is as large as England, the Eng- 
lish come for traffic, and especially those of Bristol. And 
at the time I was there the sea was not frozen, but in 
some places the tide rose 26 fathoms [feet], and fell the 
same."" "Whoever wrote the life of the Admiral, there 

* Hakluyt makes his reference in a general way, giving neither 
chapter nor page. Frisius published De Principius Astro- 
nomiae & Cosmographias, &c., in 1530. The Cosmograph- 
iae, of Hieronimo Girava was printed 1556. Gomara men- 
tions Skolnus in his Historia, c. xxxvii, Ed. 1553. See "The 
Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson," p. 23, in connection 
with Wytfliet and Pontanus. For Hakluyt, see Maine Coll., 
S. 2, vol. n, p. 148. 

'The Italian runs as follows " lo navigai I'anno 1477, nel 
mese di Febraio oltra Tile isola cento leghe, la ciu parte Aus- 
trale e lontana dall' Equinottiale settantatre gradi, et non sessan- 
tra, come alcuni vogliono: ne giace dentro della linea, che in- 
clude rOccidente di Tolomeo, ma e molto piu Occidentale. Et a 
quest' isola, che e tan to grande come ITnghilterra, vanno 
glTnglesi can le loro mercatantie, specialmente quelli di Bris- 
tol. Et al tempo, che io vi andai, non era congelelate il mare 
che in alcuni luoghi ascendena ventesi braccia, et discen- 
dena altro tanti in altezza." {Historia del S. D. Fernando 
Colombo, 1571, c. vi.) "Braccia" is evidently a clerical error 



Amkkica by the Northmen. 57 

is no question but that he made the voyage. Finn Mag- 
nussen has pointed out an interesting confirmation of the 
statement of Columbus respecting the mild weather in 
1477, where he shows from the "Annals," the remark- 
able fact, that, in 1477, snow had not been seen at 
Eyafjord, in the north of Iceland, as late as March.' 

To this period belongs the voyage of Robert Alcock, 
of Hull, who, in 1478, was commissioned by Edward lY 
to send a ship of 240 tons to Iceland, which was " to reload 
with fish or other goods. "^ He was licensed again in 1483. 

Chaucer in the prologue to the Canterbury Tales, shows 
by his ' ' Shipman, ' ' something of the activity of the Brit- 
ish sailor at this period. 

as the original Spanish will doubtless show, if ever found. 
That Columbus was familiar with the map in the Ptolemy of 
i486, showing the northern regions, with Greenland as an 
extension of Europe, can hardly be doubted. His remark re- 
specting Thyle appears to be intended almost as a correction of 
that map, on which the Orcades and Thyle are laid down north 
of Scotland, Thyle being in 6^° N., while it apears again fur- 
ther north as " Islandia." This double representation of Ice- 
land on the map was a blunder, the island being laid down first 
according to Ptolemy, and then according to the prevailing 
ideas of the day. This peculiarity of the map entitles it to 
interest as a Columbian map, though the feature referred to 
does not appear to have been remarked upon hitherto by any 
except the writer. 

' The fact was produced from the Annals by Finn Magnussen, 
in Nordisk Tidskrift for Olkyndighed, vol. 11, p. 128. It 
has been suggested, though without reason, that the voyage of 
Columbus was made in 1467. See Barrow's Chronological His- 
tory, p. 26. Columbus gives the wrong latitudes for the places 
visited, but this may be the fault of the editor; while Humboldt 
says that they were not the result of his own observations during 
a rough wintry voyage. See Exainen Critique, II, 115, and v, 
214, n. In 1550 a Bristol ship was lost at Iceland. See Bar- 
rett's Bristol. 

' Foedera, XII, 94. 



58 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

An indication more to our present purpose is found in 
the poem on " The Policie of Keeping the Sea," which be- 
longs to the middle of the fifteenth century. At that time 
the northern region was so well known that the author of 
the poem disposes of the subject briefij; 

" Of Island to write is little nede, 
Save of stockfish; yet forsooth, indeed, 
Out of Bristowe, and castes many one, 
Men have practiced by needle and stone 
Thider wardes within a little while 
Within twelve yere, and without perill 
Gon and come, as men were wont of old 
Of Scarborough unto the costes cold." ' 

Thus, at the time when the poet wrote, Bristol had re- 
vived her old enterprise. The maritime enterprise of this 
period is greatly underrated by Mr. Froude. The sketch 
now given of voyages toward the north, especially during 
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, is quite general. 
It would be easy to swell the citations from various sources, 
among which may be mentioned the voyages to the west 
of Ireland so well known to Columbus, as his biography 
proves. Yet enough has been said to show the real charac- 
ter of the period. The times, both before and after the 
general date assigned to the voyage of Columbus, were 
marked by great activity, and expeditions to the nortli 
were so common that neither the English nor the Icelanders 
took the trouble to mention them, except when they stood 
connected with circumstances of particular interest. The 
intercourse between Iceland and England was so frequent, 
that sailors like John May, who served as the representa- 
tive of the Bishop of Holem, must have acquired a fair 
knowledge of the language spoken in that distant isle. 
Indeed, at one time, under the Normans, the Icelandic 
tongue gave a person the advantage at the courts of both 
England and France.' 

But enough has been said to prove that the voyage of 

* Hakluyt, vol. I, p. 201. Ed. 1599 1600. 
•Laing's Heimskritigla, vol. i, chap, viii, p. 61. 



America by the NoRTHME^f. 59 

Columbus, in 1477, foraied no novelty. His actions take 
their place with entire naturalness in the annals of his age. 
Yet all the while the English voyagers did not, so far 
as we now know, touch Greenland. 

Columbus had the most ample opportunities for learn- 
ing of the voyages of the Northmen. He could not asso- 
ciate Avith the English sailors without hearing more or less 
about Iceland, and presumably of Greenland. He knew 
that voyages were made to the west, though he did not 
appreciate the importance of the information and failed to 
put it to use. He argued, that the land at the west vis- 
ited by the Icelanders, was not the Indies, of which he was 
in search.^ This led him to take the Southern route 
across the Atlantic' In this connection, however, the 
author has no interest in the work of lessening the deserved 
fame of Columbus. That Columbus knew of the west- 
ward voyages of the Icelanders is sufficiently evident. He 

^ When at the western end of Cuba on his second voyage, so 
certain was Columbus that he had reached the eastern coast of 
Asia that he required his officers, under oath, to declare that 
Cuba was not an island but the continent, under penalty of 
10,000 maravedis, and having their tongues cut out. See docu- 
ment in Navarrete's Colkcion, vol. II, p. 155. See, also, 
Gravier's translation of the Author's Treatise on the Lenox 
Globe, Le Globe Lenox de 15 11. Traduit de Anglaise par 
Gabriel Gravier, Rouen, 1880, p. 25. 

2 See the author's " Columbus and the Geographers of the 
North." Hartford, 1872. Those who are interested in belit- 
tling the great work of Columbus can consult Goodrich's "Life 
of Columbus." See, also, "An Inglorious Columbus," by Ed. 
P. Vining, New York, 1885, a somewhat remarkable book; to- 
gether, with "America not Discovered by Columbus. An 
Historical Sketch of the Discovery of America by the Norse- 
men, in the Tenth Century, by Rasmus B. Anderson, A. M., 
with an Appendix on the Historical, Linguistic and Scientific 
Value of the Scandinavian Languages. New and Improved 
Edition. Chicago, 1877." On the routes across the Atlantic, 
see "Narrative and Critical History," III, 172. 



60 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

clearly believed, as the Northmen did, namely, that Green- 
land lay west of Norway, and that Vinland stood contigu- 
ous. What he desired was to reach the eastern coast of 
Asia.^ Vinland did not interest him. 

THE PRESENT STATE OF THE DISCUSSION. 

About sixty years have passed since the publication of 
Rafn's work on the Antiquities of America, which gives 
the Icelandic text of the Sagas, accompanied by transla- 
tions in Latin and Danish. The appearance of that remark- 
able work excited surprise in many intelligent circles, 
though a general knowledge of the Icelandic voyages had 
long been in the possession of a class ol scholars, especially 
through the writings of Torfaeus. The volume was favor- 
ably reviewed by Edward Everett, and, both in America 
and Europe, at once commanded the attention of histor- 
ians and antiquaries.^ While some of the more enthusi- 
astic conclusions of Prof. Rafn have been disallowed, his 
main proposition has steadily gained favor, it being con- 
eded that voyages were made by the Northmen to New 
England in the eleventh century. 

On this subject Humboldt speaks most emphatically, 
saying with regard to ' ' the undoubted first discovery of 

' The author does not find evidence of any desire on the 
part of the authorities of the Roman Church to suppress 
knowledge of the Icelandic voyages, in order to exalt Colum- 
bus. When invited to canonize Columbus, the body to which the 
subject was referred reported adversely, one reason being that 
they had "grave doubts" concerning the private character of 
Columbus, a subject that historical writers are not called to 
concern themselves about. Besides, in this country, Catholic 
writers use the establishment of the Icelanders in New Eng- 
land as a ground of their own ecclesiastical priority. See 
Roman Catholic writers in general, and especially Dr. John 
Gilmary Shea and Dr. Clarke. On this point see the work 
of Marie A. Brown on the Northmen, and the four numbers of 
her Journal, "Leif Ericson, " as examples of decadence. 

' "North American Review." 



America by the Northmen. 61 

America, in its northern portion by the Northmen, " that, 
''whilst the Caliphate still flourished under the Abassides 
at Bagdad, and Persia was under the dominion of Saman- 
ides, whose age was so favorable to poetry, America was 
discovered in the year 1000 by Leif, son ol Eric the Red, 
by the northern route and as far 41° 30' north latitude." ^ 

Turning to our own country we have the testimony of 
a laborious and painstaking investigator like Palfrey, 
who examined the whole subject, and gives us as his final 
conclusion respecting the Sagas, that "their antiquity and 
genuineness appear to be well established, nor is their any 
thing to bring their credibility into question beyond the 
general doubt which always attaches to what is new or 
strange." '' 

As the result, historical writers in general accept the 
Sagas as authorit}', and usually locate Leif Eircson's set- 
lement in New England.^ 

A large proportion of the American school histories 
give the voyages of the Northmen to America, and there 
is now being raised up a generation that will be free from 
that old bias, which formerly gave Columbus the field, to 
the exclusion not only of the Irish, the Zeno Brothers and 
Northmen, but of the Cabots, who saw the American Con- 
tinent before Columbus could have done so.* 

In New England the study of the Icelandic Sagas has 
resulted in the erection of a statue to Leif Ericson in the 
City of Boston. This was not accomplished without 
opposition, the movement having been opposed hy a class 
of men, small in numbers, but whose general attainments 

' Cosmos, vol. II, p, 603. Also Examen Critique. 

'"History of New England," vol. II, p. 53. 

' See such works as the Bryant-Gay "History of the United 
States. ' ' 

* See author's article on the claim of Cabot in the Independ- 
ent, and Dr. Deane's discussion of the Cabot question, " Nar- 
rative and Critical History," vol. Ill, and, separate, Cambridge, 



62 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

and devotion to the study of historical subjects entitle any 
opinion they may present to respectful consideration. They 
represent what, in some respects, may, perhaps, be re- 
garded as a skeptical element, an element of value in con- 
nection with historical study, even as when joined to poli- 
tics and sociology. It often, however, misses its aim, 
and helps forward, ratner than hinders, the progress of a 
new line of thought. Certain it is in the present case, 
that opposition has stimulated investigation and advanced 
the influence of the Sagas as historical documents. It 
is, therefore, in vain that those to whom reference is made 
imdertake to declare, that " There is the same sort of reason 
for believing in the existence of Leif Erieson that there 
is for believing in the existence of Agamemnon; they are 
both traditions accepted by later writers." Both have been 
vindicated. 

It is sufficiently evident that local feeling, which often 
vitiates the studies of the most accomplished men, enters 
into this singular declaration. It serves no special pur- 
pose, beyond proving a feeling of irritation on the part of 
those accustomed to have every utterance received with 
deference, but who have discovered their inability to con- 
trol public opinion in connection with historical monu- 
ments. The scholars have moved on, and left them 
behind. But, notwithstanding this opposition, the study 
of the whole subject of Pre-Columbian Discovery is in- 
debted to their efforts, and the student of the Sagas should 
regard it as fortunate, that the opposition came from an 
influential source, since, in the future, it may prove a 
source of satisfaction to know that the veracity of the old 
Icelandic chronicler was established in the face of perse- 
vering and determined organized opposition.' The future 

' Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings, ' ' December, 
1887. The opinion of so distinguislied an Icelandic scholar 
as Professor Dasent alone would be accepted in critical circles 
as disposing of any opinion propounded by the Comnaittee re- 
sponsible for the above statement. 



America by the Northmen. 63 

of the Icelandic Sagas relating to America is plain. Their 
simple, unaffected statements, all uncolored either by per- 
sonal vanity or national ambition, will more and more win 
the confidence of historians, who find in these statements, 
committed to writing, as all the testimony proves, in Pre- 
Columbian times, convincing and unanswerable proof of 
the fact that Leif Ericson and other adventurers found 
America and visited New England during the times and 
under the circumstances described.* 

After this exhibition of the subject it would perhaps 
prove a reflection upon the intelligence of the reader to 
argue further. It may, nevertheless, be observed, that the 
discovery of the Papal letters in the Vatican Library afford 
additional proof of the belief that the period in which the 
Sagas originated was dominated by a true historical spirit, 
and that the Sagas take their proper place in the Northern 
school of genuine historical composition. The literary spirit 
prevailed in all the countries on the North Atlantic. Like 
the Irish, who for nearly two thousand years have proved 
themselves a literary people, the Icelanders have shown 
their devotion to intellectual efforts along legitimate lines. 
Their work cannot be taken out of its true connection with 
the literary history of the Irish, the "Welsh, the Danes and 
Norwegians. Much less can it now be viewed apart from 

' Pp.76-132, vol. I, "Narrative and Critical History," con- 
tain a large amount of matter relating to this subject, and the 
contribution is one of much value ; though it is to be regretted 
that the labor should be employed, largely, it would seem, 
for the purpose of belittling the voyages. Yet, with unequalled 
facilities at the editor's command, it cannot be said that the 
authority of the Sagas has been shaken. We find, substantially, 
opinion arrayed against argument, and the wealth of bibliog- 
raphy and illustration simply renders more apparent the weak- 
ness of the Editor's cause. Adverse criticism cannot grapple 
successfully with the subject, and has now done its worst, 
while unfortunately the attempt leaves behind on the pages 
of a noble work what in the future will be recognized not so 
much as a useful and stimulating contribution, but as a scar. 



64 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

the fact that Iceland, Greenland and Yinland stood con- 
nected with Italy, and, in particular, with Rome. Mr. 
George Bancroft deliberately dropped his early charge, 
though repeated in many editions, that the Sagas were of a 
mythological character. He had never read the Sagas at 
the time the charge was made, and knew them only by 
garbled reports. The Sagas, as the reader will perceive, 
are not mythological, either in form or substance, but are 
cast in the old Norwegian form of genuine historical writ- 
ing. The Sagas were composed at a time when the coun- 
tries treated of were well known, a fact that must have 
saved them from an infusion ol the imagination. The peo- 
ple and the Church in the new lands were also perfectly 
known and there was no field open to romance. Bishops 
and priests, and laymen of all professions and degrees, were 
travelling between Italy and the western world. The Scan- 
dinavian gods were dead. A Christian realism pervaded 
Icelandic society and gave character to Icelandic composi- 
tion. The mythic theory, as applied to the Sagas, is itself 
dead, and common sense and fidelity to history demand 
that it should now be buried out of sight. 

THE ICELANDIC NARRATIVES. 

It now remains to give the reader some general account 
of the contents of the narratives which relate more or less 
to the discovery of the Western continent. It may be well 
first, however, to notice an attempt at criticism made in 
the North American Review,' which assumes that the Sagas 
are simply reductions of old ballads, because Sturleson 
admits that a part of his '' Heimskringla" was so pro- 
duced. As it happens, however, the Vinland Sagas 
contain only four poetical fragments, while in the Heim- 
skringla they abound, A few verses are also found in 
Landanama, in its second part, the origin ol which is abso- 
lutely known. The first part was composed in the eleventh 
century and the second in the fourteenth, when the 
ballad theory becomes positively absurd. This work like- 

•July, 1869, pp, 265-72. 



America by the Northmen. 65 

wise contains two more extracts from the poem '* Havger- 
dinger," which is also quoted in the Saga relating to the 
first voyage of Biarne to America, proving clearlj; that it 
was a well-known and popular song, quoted by the differ- 
ent writers just as parts of Shakespere are quoted to-day. 
Sometimes, too, these quotations have no real relation to 
the subject, having. been introduced on the principle which 
governs the introductions of songs and hymns on oratorical 
occasions in our times. 

Nevertheless empty theories like this were devised, 
showing that the critic has no proper conception of the 
nature of Icelandic literature, either in prose or verse. ^ 

In speaking of these records the order followed will be 
that which is indicated by the table of contents at the 
beginning of the volume. 

The first extracts given are very brief. They are taken 
from the Landanama Book, and relate to the report in 
general circulation, indicating one Gunnbiorn as the dis- 
coverer of Greenland, an event which has been fixed at 
the year 876. These fragments also give an account of a 
voyage to what was called Gunnbiorn's Rocks, where the 
adventurers passed the winter, and found in a hole or exca- 
vation, a sum of money, which indicated the class of people 
who frequented the place before them, colonists fleeing from 
pirates. 

The next narrative relates to the re-discovery of Green- 
land by the outlaw, Eric the Red, in 983, who there passed 
two years in exile, and afterward returned to Iceland. 
About the year 986, he brought out to Greenland a 
considerable colony of settlers, who fixed their abode at 
Brattahlid, in Ericsfiord. 

Then follow two versions of the voyage of Biarne 
Heriulfson, who, in the same year, 986, when sailing for 
Greenland, was driven away during a storm, and saw a 

^ The critic in question was replied to by the author in 
"Notes on a Review of the Pre-Columbian Discovery of Amer- 
ica by the Northmen." Charlestown, Mass., 1869. 
5 



66 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

new land at the southward, which he did not visit. He 
was complained of, because he did not describe it care- 
fully, Avith the result that Leif had only the most vague 
reports for his guidance in following voyage. 

Next we have three separate accounts of the voyage of 
Leif, son of Eric the Ked, who, in the year 1000, sailed 
from Brattahlid, in Greenland, to find the land which 
Biarne saw. Two of these accounts are hardly more than 
notices of the voyage, but the third is of considerable 
length, and details the successes of Leif, who found and 
explored this new land, where he spent the winter, return- 
ing to Greenland the following spring. With his descrip- 
tions we find ourselves on solider ground than in the case 
of the voyage of Biarne. 

After this follows the voyage of Thorvald Ericson, 
brother of Leif, who sailed to Vinland from Greenland, 
which was the point of departure in all these voyages. 
This expedition was begun ia 1002, and it cost him his 
life, as an arrow from one of the natives pierced his side. 

Thorstein, his brother, went to seek Vinland, with the 
intention of bringing home his body, but failed in tlie 
attempt, and was driven back, passing the winter in a part 
of Greenland remote from Brattahlid, where he died before 
the spring fully opened. 

The most distinguished explorer was the great Thorfinn 
Karlsefne, an Icelander whose genealogy runs back in the 
old Northern annals, through Danish, Swedish, and even 
Scotch and Irish ancestors, some of whom were of royal 
blood. In the year 1006 he went to Greenland, where he 
met Gudrid, widow of Thorstein, whom he married. Ac- 
companied by his wife, who urged him to the undertaking, 
he sailed for Vinland in tlie spring of 1007, with three ves- 
sels and one hundred and sixty men. He remained in 
Vinland three years. Here his son Snorre was born. 
This Snorre afterwards l>ecame the founder of a e:reat fam- 
ily in Iceland, which gave the island sovcral of its earlier 
bishops. Thorfinn finally left Vinland because he found 
it difficult to sustain himself against the attacks of the 



America by the Northmen. 67 

natives. He seems to have spent the most of the time in the 
vicinity of Mount Hope Bay in Ehode Island. Of this 
expedition we have three narratives, all of which are given. 

The next to undertake a voyage was a wicked woman 
named Freydis, sister of Leif Ericson, who went to Yin- 
land in 1011, where she lived for a time with her two ships' 
crews in the same places occupied by Leif and Thorfinn. 
Before returning she caused the crew ol one ship to be 
cruelly murdered, assisting in the butchery with her own 
hands. 

After this we have what are called the Minor Narra- 
tives, which are not perhaps essential, yet they are given, 
that the reader may be in possession of all that relates to 
the subject. The lirst of these refers to a voyage of Are 
Marson to a land south-west of Ireland, called Hvitram- 
mana-land, or Great Ireland. This was prior to Leif's 
voyage to Vinland, or New England, taking place in the 
year 983. Biorn Asbrandson is supposed to have gone to 
the same place in 999. The voyage of Gudleif, who went 
thither, is assigned to the year 1027. The narrative of 
Asbrandson is given for the sake of the allusion at the close. 

Finally we have a few scraps of history which speak of 
a voyage of Bishop Eric to Yinland in 1121, of the re-dis- 
covery of Helluland (Newfoundland) in 1285, and of a 
voyage to Markland (Nova Scotia) in 13-17, whither the 
Northmen came to cut timber. "With such brief notices 
the accounts come to an end. 

THE TRUTHFULNESS OF THE NARRATIVES: 

The reader will occasionally find in these narratives in- 
stances of a marvelous and supernatural character, but 
there is nothing at all mythological, as persons ignorant of 
their nature have supposed. Besides there are multitudes 
of narratives of a later date, to be found in all languages, 
which afford as many statements of a marvelous nature as 
these Sagas, which, nevertheless, contain a substantial 
ground-work of truth. All early histories abound in the 
marvelous, and these things are so well known that illus- 



68 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

trations are hardly needed. The relation of prodigies in 
nowise destroys the credibility of historical statement. If 
this were not so, we should be obliged to discard tlie greater 
portion of well-knowu history, and even suspect plain mat- 
ters of fact in the writings of such men as Dr. Johnson, 
because the great scholar fully believed in the apparition 
known in London as the Cock-Lane Ghost. The Sagas 
are as free from superstition and imagination as most other 
narratives of that age, and are just as much entitled to 
belief. 

There will also in certain cases be found contradictions. 
The statements of the different narratives do not always 
coincide. The disagreenients are, however, neither very 
numerous nor remarkable. The discrepancies are exactly 
what we should expect to find in a series of narratives 
written at different times and by different hands. The 
men who recorded the various expeditions to I^ew England 
in the eleventh century agree, on the whole, quite as well 
as the writers of our own day, who, with vastly greater 
advantages, undertake to narrate the events of the coloni- 
zation of America in the seventeenth century. ' 

Therefore these marvelous statements and occasional 
contradictions in nowise detract from the historic value of 
the documents themselves, which, even in their very truth- 

^ The Hability of the best historians to fall into error is illus- 
trated by Paley, who shows the serious blunders in the accounts 
of the Marquis of Argyle's death, in the reign of Charles II: 
* ' Lord Clarendon relates that he was condemned to be hanged, 
which was performed the same day; on the contrary, Burnet, 
Woodrow, Heath and Echard concur in stating that he was 
beheaded, and that he was condemned upon Saturday and exe- 
cuted on Monday." — "Evidences of Christianity," part III, 
chap. i. So Mr. Bancroft found it impossible to give with any 
accuracy the location of the French colony of St. Saviour, estab- 
lished on the coast of Maine, by Saussaye, in 1613. Bancoft tells 
us that it was on the north bank of the Penobscot, while it is 
perfectly well known that it was located on the island of Mount 
Desert, a long way off, on the edge of the ocean. 



America by the Northmen. 69 

fulness to the times, ^ive every evidence of authenticity 
and great worth. To this general appearance of truthful- 
ness we may, however, add tlie force of those undesigned 
coincidences between writers widely sepai-ated and desti- 
tute of all means of knowing what had been already said. 
The same argument may be used with the Sagas which had 
been so powerfully employed by Paley and others in vin- 
dicating the historical character of the New Testament.^ 
In these narratives, as in those of SS. Paul and John, 
it may be used with overwhelming effect. Yet we should 
not fear to dispense with all auxiliary aids. We are will- 
ing to rest the whole question of the 'value of these narra- 
tives ujpon their age; for if the Sagas date back to a period 
long prior to the voyage of Columbus, then the Northmen 
are entitled to the credit of having been among the first 
Europeans to land upon these shores. But the date of 
these narratives has now been settled beyond reasonable 
question. The doubts of the ablest critical niinds, both 
in Europe and America, have been effectually laid to rest, 
and at the end of all the years that have passed since the 
first edition of this work came from the press, we are 
obliged to repeat that the reply now given to the Northern 
Antiquary is often some feeble paragraph pointed with 
a sneer. 

We need not, therefore, appear before the public to cry, 
' ' Place for the Northmen ! ' ' They win their own place 
as they did of old. They are as strong to-day in ideas, 
as anciently in arms. 

MONUMENTS AND REMAINS. 

That the Northmen left no pronounced architectural 
remains in New England may be true. Professor Rafn 

^ This is the language held in the first edition of the work, 
though one might infer from the language employed by Diman, 
in his review of the book in the North American Review (July, 
1869), that the author was at that time wholly unacquainted 
with the fact. Our language seems to have escaped the atten- 
tion of the reviewer. 



YO Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

supposed that he found in the celebrated Digliton Rock' 
and the stone mill at Newport, evddeneee of the Icelandic 
occupation. Any efforts to identify the Dighton inscrip- 
tion and the Newport Mill with the age of the Northmen 
can only serve to injure a good cause. If Professor Rafn 

^ Dighton Rock, known as the Writing Rock, is situated six 
and a half miles south of Taunton, Mass., on the east side of 
Taunton river, formed by Assonnet Neck. It lies in the edge 
of the river, and is left dry at low water. It is a boulder of 
fire graywack, twelve feet long and five feet high, and faces 
the bed of the river. Its front is now covered with chiseled 
inscriptions of what appear to be letters and outHnes of men, 
animals and birds. As early as the year 1680, Dr. Danforth 
secured a drawing of the upper portion; Cotton Mather made 
a full copy in 1712; and in 1788, Professor Win throp, of Har- 
vard College, took a full sized impression on prepared paper. 
Various other copies have been made at different times, all 
of which present substantially the same features. Yet in the 
interpretation of the inscription there has been little agreement. 
The old rock is a riddle. A copy of the inscription was shown 
to a Mohawk chief, who decided that it was nothing less than 
the representation of a triumph of Indians over a wild beast, 
which took place on this spot. Mr. Schoolcraft also showed 
a copy to Chingwank, an Algonquin well versed in picture- 
writing, who gave a similar interpretation. The Roman charac- 
ters in the central part of the composition he was finally 
induced to reject, as having no connection with the rest. Who- 
ever compares this inscription with those of undeniably Indian 
origin found elsewhere, cannot fail to be impressed with the 
similarity. Nevertheless, members of the Royal Society of 
Antiquaries, to whose notice it was brought by the Rhode Is- 
land Historical Society, felt strongly persuaded that the rock 
bore evidence of the Northman's visit to these shores. Mr. 
Laing, the accomplished translator of the Hcimskringla, in 
discussing the thories in regard to the inscription, says, that 
the only resemblance to letters is found in the middle of the 
stone, in which antiquaries discover the name of Thorfinn, that 
is, Thorfinn Karlsefne, the leader of the expedition which 



America by the Northmen. 71 

bad seen these memorials lie would doubtless bave been 
among tbe first to question tbe trutb of the tbeorj wbicb 
be set forth. 

In regard to tbe structure at Newport, Professoi Rafn 
says that be is inclined to believe "that it had a sacred 

came to New England in 1007. Just over these letters is a 
character, supposed to be Roman also, which may signify NA, 
or MA, the letter A being formed by the last branch of M. 
Now MA in Icelandic is used as an abbreviation of Madr, which 
signifies the original settler of a country. Close to these two 
letters are several numerals, construed to mean one hundred 
and fifty-one. According to the account ol the voyage, Thor- 
finn lost nine of the one hundred and sixty men with whom 
it is presumed he started, and therefore one hundred and fifty- 
one would exactly express the number with him at the time 
he is supposed to have cut the inscription. This, then, 
would mean altogether, that Thorfinn Karlsefne established 
himself there with one hundred and fifty-one men. Yet, as 
the testimony of this rock is not needed, we may readily forego 
any advantage that can be derived from its study. Besides, 
the history of similar cases should serve to temper our zeal. 
In the time of Saxo Grammatticus (1160), there was a stone 
at Hoby, near Runamoe, in the Swedish province of Bleking, 
which was supposed to be sculptured with runes. At a late 
day copies were furnished the antiquary, who came to the con- 
clusion, as Laing tells us, that it was a genuine inscription, re- 
ferring to the battle of Braaville, fought in the year 680. 
It afterward turned out that the apparent inscription was 
made by the disintegration of veins of a soft material existing 
in the rock. Yet the Dighton inscription is beyond question 
the work of man. Mr. A. E. Kendal, writing in 1807, says 
that there was a tradition that Assonnet Neck, on which tongue 
of land the rock is situated, was once a place of banishment 
among the Indians. He states, further, that the Indians had 
a tradition to the effect that in ancient times some rvhife men 
in a l>i7'd landed there and were slaughtered by the aborigines. 
They also said thunder and lightning issued from the bird, which 
fact indicates that this event, if it occurred at all, must be re- 



72 Pre-Coliimbian Discovert of 

destination, and that it belonged to some monastery oi Chris- 
tian place of worship of one of the chief parishes in V in- 
land. In Greenland," he says, "there are to be found 
ruins of several round buildings in the vicinity of the 
churches. One of this description, in diameter about 
twenty-six feet, is situated at the distance of three hundred 
feet to the eastward of the great church in Igalliko ; another 
of forty-four feet in diameter, at the distance of four hun- 
dred and forty feet to the eastward of the church in Kar- 
kortok; ... a third, of thirty-two feet in diameter 
amongst the ruins of sixteen buildings at Kanitsok.'" 
He supposes that these ancient remains of the Icelanders, 
seen in Greenland to-day, are baptisteries, similar to those 
of Italy. 

According to this view, there must have been a consider- 
able ecclesiastical establishment in Yinland, which is not 
indicated by the Sagas, from which we learn no more than 
the simple fact that Bishop Eric sailed on a voyage to this 
place in the year 1121. But is it probable that the North- 

ferred to the age of gunpowder, suggesting the visit made 
by Verrazano to New England, but very likely pointing to some 
later navigator. Mr. Kendal mentions the story of a ship's 
anchor having been found there at an early day. In former 
years the rock was frequently dug under by the people, in the 
hope of finding concealed treasures. It is said that a small 
rock once existed near by, which also bore marks of human 
hands. The Portsmouth and Tiverton Rocks, described by 
Mr. Webb {Anfiquita/es Americance, pp. 355-71), are doubt- 
less Indian inscriptions; while that on the island of Monhegan, 
off the coast of Maine, may perhaps be classed with the rock 
of Hoby. After all, it is possible that the central portion of 
the inscription on the Dighton Rock may be the work of the 
Northmen. That two distinct parties were concerned in mak- 
ing the inscription is clear from the testimony of the Indians, 
who did not pretend to understand that portion thought to refer 
to Karlsefne. For the full discussion, see Antiquitates Ameri- 
cance, p. 378 et seq. 

"^ Mdtnoirs des Antiquaires du Nord, 1839-9, P* 377* 



America by the Northmen. 7S 

men would have erected a baptistery like this, and, at the 
same time, left no other monument ? It seems hardly rea- 
sonable. Besides, whoever examines this ancient structure 
must be impressed by its modern aspect, so especially 
apparent in the mortar, which has been analyzed and found 
to be substantially the same as the mortar used in some of 
the early structures of Newport.^ 

'■ See Mag. American History, vol. III, p. 541. The Old 
Mill at Newport stands on an eminence in the center of the 
town, being about twenty-four feet high, and twenty-three 
feet in diameter. It rests upon eight piers and arches. It 
has four small windows, and, high up the wall, above the 
arches, was a small fireplace. It is first distinctly mentioned 
in the will of Governor Benedict Arnold, of Newport, where 
it is called, "my stone-built wind mill." It is known that 
during the eighteenth century it served both as a mill and pow- 
der-house. Edward Pelham, who married Governor Arnold's 
grand- daughter, in 1740, also called it "an old stone mill." Peter 
Easton, who early went to live in Newport, wrote in 1663, that 
"this year we built the first windmill;" and August 28, 1675, 
he says, "a storm blew down our windmill." What Easton 
relates occurred before Governor Arnold writes about his stone 
windmill, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that when the 
one spoken of by Easton was destroyed he built something more 
substantial. Yet we cannot say that this was actually the case. 
Some old tower may have been adapted by him for the pur- 
poses of a mill, when the one used by Easton was destroyed. 
The family of the Governor is said to have come from War- 
wickshire, England. One of his farms was called the Leam- 
ington Farm, as is supposed, from the place by that name near 
Warwick. In addition to this, in the Chesterton Parish, three 
miles from Leamington, there is an old windmill similar in con- 
struction to that at Newport. It is supposed that it was erected 
on pillars for pneumatic reasons, and, also, that carts might thus 
go underneath to be loaded and unloaded with greater ease. It 
has been suggested that (f Governor Arnold came from Warwick- 
shire, of which proof is not given, and {/ the Chesterton mill was 
standing at the time of his departure for New England, he might 



74 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

In Greenland the evidences oi the Northmen's occupa- 
tion are abundant, because they were regularly established 
on the ground for generations, and formed their public 
and private edifices of the only material at hand, which was 
well nigh imperishable. But their visits to New England 
were comparatively few, and were scattered over many 
years. Owing to the weakness of their numbers, they may 
have found permanent colonies impracticable. Thorlinn 
Karlselfne deliberately gave up the attempt at the end of a 
three years' experiment, saying that it would be impossible 
to maintain the position against the numerous bands of 
natives. So far as we know the various companies that 
came into Vinland, occupied huts or booths, like Leif's 
booths, and simply added others similar to them wlien 
they afforded insufficient quarters. To ask for monumen- 
tal proofs of the occupation of the Northmen is, therefore, 
unreasonable, since their huts and timber crosses must soon 
have disappeared. The memorial we have a right to ex- 
pect is some relic, a coin or amulet, perhaps, that chance 
may yet throw in the antiquary's way,' or some excava- 

have built a mill at Newport after the same model. Yet this is 
something we know little about. Whence came the Chesterton 
Mill itself? There was a tradition that it was built after a design 
by Inigo Jones, but this is only a tradition. That struc- 
ture also might have belonged to the class of Towers, of which 
one at least was probably built by Northmen in Greenland. 
It will not help the Northmen to class this Newport relic with 
their works. See Palfrey's New England, vol. I, pp. 57-59. 
Scribner''s Monthly, March, 1879. The windmill is now out 
of the story. 

* Some have fancied that "the skeleton in armor," dug up 
near Fall River, was a relic of the Northmen, being the re- 
mains of one of those men killed by the natives in the battle 
with Karlsefne. But it would be fai more reasonable to look 
for traces of the Northmen among the Indians of Gaspe, who, 
at an early day, were distinguished for an unusual degree of 
civilization. Make Brun tells us that they worshiped the sun, 
knew the points of the compass, observed the position of some 



America by the Northmen. 75 

tion, it may be a trench, conduit, cellar or incipient for- 
tress. In the meanwhile, among scholars, the Icelandic 
narratives are steadily winning their way to unquestioned 
belief. This is all the more gratifying in an age like the 

of the stars, and traced maps of their country. Before the 
French missionaries went among them it is said they worshiped 
the figure of the cross, and had a tradition that a venerable 
person once visited them, during an epidemic, curing many 
by the use of that symbol. See Malte Brun's Geography 
(English edition), vol. v, p. 135. Malte Brunn's authority 
is Father Leclerc's Nouvelle Relation de la Gaspesie. Paris, 
1672. See on "The Skeleton in Armour," Mass. Hist. Coll. 
1837; also Williamson, "The Northmen in Maine," Hist. Mag. 
Jan. 1869, p. 30. At Pittston, Me., trees three feet in diam- 
eter and with six hundred annular rings, were found associated 
with brick work, which, so far as appearances went, antedated 
the trees. See in opposition, Mass. Hist. Proceedings, 2 series, 
vol. v, p. 337. 

Attention may be called to the writings of the late Prof. 
Eben N. Horsford, a most remarkable series of monographs 
on the subject, containing maps of great value and unique 
interest. The volumes were printed at the Riverside Press, 
in the following order: "Discovery of America by the North- 
men," etc., 1888; "The Problem of the Northmen," 1889; 
" Discovery of the Ancient City of Norombega, " 1890; 
" Watertown the Site of Norombega," 1890; "A Reply to 
Olson's Review, '' etc., 1890; "The Defences of Norombega,'' 
1 891; "Sketch of the Norse Discovery, "etc., 1891; "The 
Landfall of Leif Erickson," 1892; " Leif's House in Vinland," 
1893. 

These works have been followed by others from the pen of 
Prof. Horsford 's accomplished daughter, Miss Cornelia Hors- 
ford, as follows : 

" Graves of the Northmen," 1893; "An Inscribed Stone," 
1895; "Dwellings of the Saga Time in Iceland, Greenland 
and Vinland," 1898; "Vinland and Its Ruins,'' 1899; " Ruins 
of the Saga-time by Thorstein Erlingss^oi, Report oi the Expe- 
dition sent to Iceland, by Cornelia Horsford, published by the 



76 Pki;-Columbian Discovery of 

present, in wliich portions of history are being dismissed 
to the realms of hoary fable, and all the annals of the past 
are being studied in a critical spirit, with true auns and a 
pure zeal. 



PRE-COLUMBIAN mSCOYERT. 



I. FEAGMENTS FROM LAND A NAM A BOOK. 

The following extracts from the Landanama,' give us 
the earliest information on record, in regard to the west- 
ward movements of the Icelanders. The men referred to 

Viking Club of London," 1899. These works are carefully 
prepared and indicate a broad vision. They support the view 
of Prof. Horsford, who held that remains found on the Charles 
date from the times of the Northmen, and presumably belong 
to the eleventh century. The present writer locates Norom- 
bega on the Penobscot in Maine, yet however that may be, 
the modern character of the remains on the Charles is not 
proven. What is called the "Fort of Norombega, thus far 
has no reasonable explanation on the theory that it is a recent 
work. The remains of the house uncovered by Miss Horsford 
may be the ruins of an Icelandic structure, yet Leif's booth 
is placed by the writer in Rhode Island. These questions, how- 
ever, do not affect the historical character of Leif's narrative, 
parts of which, like many writings of our day, are obscure. 
Miss Horsford has laid students of history under indebted- 
ness by her contributions to the subject, in all of which she 
wins much praise for her loyalty to the memory and work of 
her father, who did so much to advance study. 

* The Landanama-bok. This is probably the most complete 
record of the kind ever made by any nation. It is of the same 
general character as the English Doomsday Book, but vastly 
superior in interest and value. It contains the names of three 
thousand persons and one thousand four hundred places. It 
gives a correct account of genealogies of the first settlers, 



America by the NoRTiniEx. 77 

were well known, and the mention of their names and 
exploits in this great work, than which no highei authority 
could be produced, is gratifying. These extracts, which 
are given in the order in which they stand in vol. I, of 
Gronland's Historiske Mindesmcerker, "The Historical 
Monuments of Greenland," the greater portion of which 
work is the labor of Finn Magnussen, have probably never 
appeared before in English dress. The first extract sim- 
ply mentions Gunnbiorn and his Rocks; the second shows 
that Eric the Red obtained at least a portion of his knowl- 
edge of Greenland through this person; the third again 
gives the name of Gunnbiorn; while the fourth furnishes 
a brief account of an early voyage to the Rocks. It appears 
from these references, that, previous to the sailing of Eric 
the Red, the existence of land at the west was well under- 
stood. The report of Gunnbiorn's adventure was quite 
generally circulated amongst the people. Are Marson's 
voyage to the West, we shall see, was 983, or three years 
earlier. 



1. There was a man named Grimkel [A. D. 876], son 
of UK Hreiparson, called Krage, and brother to Gunn- 
biorn, ' after whom Gunnbiorn's Rocks' are named. He 

with brief notices of their achievements. It was commenced 
by the celebrated Frode the Wise, who was born 1067, and 
died 1 148, and was continued by Kalstegg, Styrmer and Thord- 
sen, being completed by Hauk Erlendson, Lagman, or Gov- 
ernor of Iceland, who died in the year 1334. 

■ Gunnbiorn appears to have been a Northman who settled in 
Iceland at an early day. Nothing more is known of him. 

" Torfseus says that these rocks lie six sea miles out from Geir- 
fuglesker, west from Reikiavik, and twelve miles south of Gar- 
dar in Greenland, yet they cannot now be found. It is not 
too much to suppose that they have been sunk by some of those 
fearful convulsions which have taken place in Iceland; yet it 
is quite as reasonable to conclude that these rocks were located 
elsewhere, probably nearer the east coast, which was formerly 



78 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

took possession of that piece of land that extends from 
Berevigs Koin to Ness Koin, and to around the point of 
the cape. He lived on Saxahval. He drove away Saxe, 
a son of Alfarin Valeson, and he lived on the Eoin of 
Saxahval. Alfarin Yaleson had first taken possession of 
the cape between Berevigs Roin and Enne. 

2. Eric Red [A. D. 983] said tliat he intended to find 
the land that was seen by Gunnbiorn/ Ulf Krage's son, 
when he was driven by a storm west from Iceland, and 
found Gunnbiorn's Rocks. [A. D. 876.] At the same 
time he said if he did not find the land he would return to 
his friends. 

3. Two sons of Gunnbiorn, Ulf Krage's son, after whom 
Gunnbiorn's Rocks were named, were called Gunstein 
and Haldor. They took possession of Skotufiorden, Loi- 
gardelen and Ogursvigen to Mjorfiord. Berse was Hal- 
dor's son, father to Thormod Kalbrunarskald. 

4. Sngebiorn (Holmstein's son), called Galte, owned a 
ship [A.. D. 970], that lay in the mouth of Grimsar (in 
Borgafiorden). Rolf, from Rodesand, bought a half of 
the ship. Each of the parties mustered twelve men. 
With Sngebiorn was Thorkel and Sumarlide, sons of Thor- 
gier Red, son of Einar, from Stafholdt. 

Snsebiorn also took Thorod from Thingness, his step- 
more accessible than now. In the version of the account of 
Greenland by Ivar Bardson (Antiquitates Americanae, p. 301), 
given from a Faroese Manuscript, and curiously preserved by 
Purchas, "His Pilgrimage," vol. Ill, p. 518, we read as fol- 
lows: " Item, men shall know that between Island and Green- 
land, lyeth a Risse called Gornbornse-Skare. There were they 
wont to haue their passage for Gronland. But as they report 
there is Ice upon the same Risse, come out of the Long North 
Bottome, so that we can not use the same old Passage as they 
thinke." See "Sailing Directions of Henry Hudson." 

' Torfseus says (Greenlandia, p. 73) that "Eric the Red 
first lived in Greenland, but it was discovered by the man 
called Gunnbiorn. After him Gunnbiorn's Rocks are called" 
(2d ed. 1755)- 



America by the Northmen, 79 

father and his five sons, and Rolf took Stserbiorn. The 
last named recited the following verse, after he had a 
dream: 

Both ours 
dead I see; 
all empty 

in Northwestern Sea; 
cold weather 
great suffering, 
I expect 
Snaebiorn's death.' 

They sought Gunnbiorn's Rocks and found land. Snse- 
biorn would not permit any one to go ashore in the night. 
Stserbiorn landed, notwithstanding, and found a purse '^ 
with money in an earth hole, and concealed it. Snae- 
biorn hit him with an axe so that the purse dropped. 

They built a cabin to live in, and it was all covered with 
snow. Thorkel Red's son found that there was water on 
a shelf that stood out of the cabin window. This was 
in the month of Goe.' They shoveled the snow away. 

' The translation is literal, or nearly so, and the sense is 
obscure. 

^ The place of concealment appears to have been an exca- 
vation covered with stone or wood. That the people were 
sometimes accustomed to hide money in this way is evident. 
This was hidden there by Irishmen or Icelanders who may 
have been on their way to Greenland. We read in the Saga 
of Eric the Red, that Eric at first intended to go with his son, 
Leif, on his voyage to discover the land seen by Heriulf, 
which Leif named Vinland. On his way to the ship, Eric's 
horse stumbled, and he fell to the ground seriously injured, 
and was obliged to abandon the voyage. He accepted this as 
a judgment for having, as one preparation for his absence, 
buried his money, where his wife, Thorhild, would not be able 
to find it. 

3 This is believed to have been about February, affording 

one of many indications that the climate of that region has 

become more rigorous than formerly. The fact that water 

did not freeze indicates mild weather, which we might infer 

6 



80 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

Sngebiorn rigged the ship; Thorod and five of his party 
were in the hut, and Stserbiorn and several men of Rolf's 
party. Some hunted.^ Sta3rbiorn killed Thorod, but 
both he and Rolf killed Snsebiorn. Red's sons and all the 
rest were obliged to take the oath of allegiance to save 
their lives. They arrived on their return at Helgeland, 
Norway, and later at Vadil in Iceland.' 

from the fact of their rigging their vessels, and from the prep- 
aration made for sea. In regard to the term " Goe, " Gron- 
land' s Historiske Mindes77icBrker (vol. I, p. 7), says: "This 
name was before used in Denmark, which Etatsraad Werlauf 
has discovered on the inscription of a Danish Rune-Stone." 

' The facts that they engaged in hunting, and that they 
built a cabin to live in, might at first lead some to suppose that 
the place contained a forest or more or less trees, to supply 
wood. Yet this does not follow, as driftwood supplied all wants 
for building purposes where they could not obtain or use 
stone. Regarding driftwood, Crantz says, in speaking of 
Greenland: " For as He had denied this frigid, rocky region 
the growth of trees, He has bid the storms oi the ocean con- 
vey to its shores a great deal of wood, which accordingly comes 
floating thither, part without ice, but the most part along 
with it, and lodges itself between the islands. Were it not 
for this, we Europeans should have no wood I0 burn there. 
Among this wood are great trees torn up by the roots, 
which by driving up and down for many years and dashing and 
rubbing on the ice, are quiet bare of branches. A small part of 
the driftwood are willows, alder and birch trees, which come out 
of the bays in the south; also large trunks of aspen trees, 
but the greatest part is pine and fir. We find, also, a 
good deal of a sort of wood, finely veined, and with few branches; 
this, I fancy, is larchwood. . . . There is also a solid, red- 
dish wood of a more agreeable fragrancy than the common fir, 
with visible cross veins, which I take to be the same species as the 
beautiful silver firs, or zirbel, that have the smell of cedar, 
and grow on the high Grison hills, and the Switzers wainscoat 
their rooms with them.'' — History 0/ Greenland, vol. I, p. 37. 

" If any confirmation were needed of the truth of this narra- 



America by the Northmen. 81 



II. THE COLONIZATION OF GREENLAND. 

The first document relating to the settlement of Green- 
land by the Northmen, is taken from the Saga of Eric 
the Red, as given in Professor Rafn's Antiquitates Ameri- 
cancB. Besides the history of Eric and his sons, that Saga 
contains notices of other voyages. The following are sim- 
ply extracts. The vdiole Saga does not necessarily apply to 
the subject under examination — the Discovery of America. 
The second extract, which gives more of the particulars, 
is from Gi'onland^s HistorisTce MindesmcErheT, vol. 11, 
p. 201. The third is also taken from the same great his- 
torical depository. 

FIRST NARRATIVE. 

There was a man named Thorvald, son of Osvald, son 
of Ulf-Oexna Thorerisson. Thorvald and his son were 
obliged to leave Jardar ^ and go to Iceland, on account of 
manslaughter. At that time Iceland was generally colo- 
nized."' They first lived in Drangey, where Thorvald died. 
Then Eric married Thorhild, daughter of Jorund and 
Thorbiarg Knarrabringa, whom afterward Thorbiorn of 
Haukdale married. Eric moved from the north, and fixed 
his abode in Ericstad opposite Yatshorn, The son of Eric 
and Thorhild was named Leif . But after Eyulf Soers and 
Holm -Gang Rafn's murder, Eric was banished from Hauk- 
dale. Eric went westward to Breidafiord and lived at Oex- 
ney in Ericstad. He lent Thorgest his seat-posts,^ and he 
could not get them again. He then demanded them. Then 
came disputes aod hostility between him and Thorgest, 

tive, or of the kilHng of Snaebiorn and Thorod, we might look 
or it in the equally well-known fact, that after the return 
of the voyagers to Iceland, the death of these two men was 
fearfully revenged by their friends. 

' South-west of Norway. 

' See Colonization of Iceland, in the Introduction. 

' See notes to Introduction. 



82 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

which is told m the history of Eric. Stjr Thorgrim's 
son, Ejulf of Svinoe, the sons of Brand of Aptelfiord and 
Thorbiorn Vililsson plead the cause of Eric; Thorder 
Gellurson and Thorgeir of Hitardale plead for Thorgest. 
Eric was declared outlawed by the king, aEd prepared his 
ship for sea in Eric's Bay. Styr and the others went with 
him beyond the island. [A. D. 982.] Then Eric declared 
it to be his resolution to seek the land which Gunnbiorn, 
Ulf Krage's son, saw [A. D. 876] when driven into the 
Western Ocean, where he found Gunnbiorn's Rocks, 
saying, that if he did not find the land he would return 
to his friends. Eric set sail from Snaefellsjokul, and found 
land which from its height he called Midjokul, now called 
Blaeserk. Thence he sailed along the shore in a southerly 
direction, seeking for the nearest habitable land. The 
first winter he passed in Ericseya,^ near the middle of the 
east district. The following year he came into Erics- 
fiord, where he fixed his seat. 

The same summer he explored the western desert, and 
gave names to many places. The following winter he 
passed on a holm opposite Rafnsgnipa, and the third year 
he came into Iceland and brought his ship into Breidafiord. 
The land which he found, he named Greenland, saying 
that men would be persuaded to go to a land with so good 
a name. 2 Eric stayed in Iceland that winter, and the sum- 
mer after he went over to the land which he had found, 
and fixed his abode in Brattahlid in Ericsfiord. [A. D. 
986.] Men acquainted with affairs, say that this same 

' It is now difficult to identify these localities. The old 
view, that what is called the East-bygd, or District, was on the 
eastern coast of Greenland, is now abandoned. It is probable 
that no settlement was ever effected on the east coast, though 
formerly it was evidently more approachable than now. See 
Graah's Expeditioti. 

' As we certainly know that Christianity was established in 
Iceland in the year A. D. looo, the final settlement of Eric 
and his followers must have taken place during the year assigned 
viz., 985. 



America by the Northmen. 83 

summer in which Eric went to settle in Greenland, thirty- 
five ships sailed from Breidafiord and Bogaf jord, of which 
only fourteen arrived, and the rest were driven back or 
lost. This event took place fifteen winters ' before the 
Christian religion was established in Iceland. The same 
summer, Bishop Frederick and Thorvold Kodranson 
went from Iceland.''^ Among those who emigrated with 

' See Antiqiiitates Americancz, p. 15, note a. 

''Evidently an error. See Antiqiiitates AmericancB, p. 15, 
note 3. On the state of society in Greenland al this period the 
reader may consult Prof. Keyser, from whose work on the 
Religion of the Northmen we may give the following, which is 
a translation of a part of the Saga of Eric that is given in Rafn's 
work : 

"At that time there was great famine in Greenland. Those 
who had gone to the wild districts (hunting and fishing) had 
met with little success, on account of the storms and bad 
paths. Some had never returned. There was a woman living 
in the settlement, whose name was Thorbjorg; she was a Spae- 
wife, and was called the little Valla or Prophetess. She 
had nine sisters, of whom she was the only survivor. Thorbjorg 
was in the habit of going around to the festivals, and she was 
invited chiefly by those who wished to learn their fate and the 
coming seasons. As Thorkel was the best man of the settle- 
ment, it seemed to be incumbent upon him to gain some infor- 
mation when the prevailing famine should cease. Thorkel, 
therefore, invites the Spae-wife to his house and prepares for 
her a good reception, such as was customary when a woman of 
her standing was expected. A cushion was prepared for her; 
it had to be stuffed with hen feathers. It was laid upon a high 
seat in the evening, when she came in with the man who had 
been sent out to receive her. She was dressed on this occasion 
as follows: She wore a blue cloak with fastenings of cords, set 
with stones around the border from top to bottom. Around 
her neck she had glass beads; upon her head a black lambskin 
hood, lined with white catskin. She carried a staff mounted 
with brass, with the head inlaid with stones. She was girded 
with a young bearskin belt, and to this hung a large pouch in 



84 Pbe-Columbian Discovert of 

Eric and established themselves, were Heriulf Heriulfs- 
fiord who took Heriulfsness, and abode in Heriulfsness, 
Ketil Ketilsiiord, Rafn Rafnsfiord, Solvi Solvidale, Helgi 
Thorbrandson Alptafiord, Thorbjornglora Siglefjord, Ei- 
nar Einarsfiord, Hafgrim, Hafgrimsfiord and Yatnahver, 
Arnlaug, Arnlaugsfiord and other men went to the west 
district. 

which she kept the instruments of magic belonging to her oc- 
cupation. On her feet she wore shaggy calfskin shoes with 
long, heavy thongs, on the ends of which were large brass but- 
tons. She had catskin gloves upon her hands, white within, 
and shaggy. When she entered, every one felt it a duty to 
greet her with reverence; she returned their salutations, ac- 
cording to what she thought of each individually. Thorkel 
took the wise woman by the hand, and conducted her to the 
seat prepared for her. He requested her to cast her eyes over 
his herds, and property and house. She said but Httle concern- 
ing this. In the evening the tables were set, and now it shall 
be told what dishes were made ready for the Spae-wife. There 
were groats made of goat's milk; but her food was prepared 
from the heart of every animal in the neighborhood. She 
had a brass spoon and a knife of copper with a shaft of walrus 
tooth, and a double sheath, the point of which was broken off. 
When the tables were cleared Thorkel Bondi goes up to Thorb- 
jorg and asks what she thinks of the house and the appearance 
of the people, and also how soon she will have a revelation 
concerning the things he has asked her about and which the 
people are all anxious to know. She answers that she cannot 
make this known before morning, after she has slept there 
over night. Early in the morning all the arrangements were 
made for her which belong to the incantation of Seidr. She 
then asked them to furnish hei with women who knew the magic 
formulas of that ceremony, and who are called Vardloktcr, 
e. /., the watch-guard; but none could be found who knew it, 
although inquiry was made at the neighboring houses. Then 
Gudrid, a young girl who was present, said, ' I am not skilled in 
magic, nor any wise woman; but my foster-mother in Iceland 
taught me a formula, which she called Vardlokur.^ Thorkel 



America by the Nokthmen. 85 



The Baptism of Leif the Fortunate. 

Wlien the sixth winter had passed [A. D. 999], since 
Eric Red went to live in Greenland, Leif, son of Eric, went 
over from Greenland to Norway, and in the autumn arrived 
in Throndheira, and came north to King Olaf Trygvesson,' 
from Hegeland. He brought his ship to Nidaros and 
went at once to King Olaf. The king commanded Leif 

said, 'Thou art wiser than I thought.' Gudrid answered, 
* This formula and the proceedings connected with it are of such 
a character that I cannot be present to assist with them; for 
I am a Christian.' Thorkel replied, Thou couldst help us in 
this matter without harming thyself thereby; I should be glad 
to furnish Thorbjorg what is necessary.' He then persuaded 
Gudrid so long that she at length promised to fulfill his wishes. 
Now Thorbjorg sat upon the witch seat, and the women formed 
a circle around her. Gudrid sang the song so beautifully and 
well that no one of the bystanders thought they had ever 
heard a fairer song. Even the Spae-wife thought the song 
was beautiful to hear, and thanked her for it when done. 'Now, 
says Thorbjorg, ' I have reflected upon the matter, how it will 
be both with the sickness and the seasons; and much has now 
been made clear to me that before was hidden from me and 
from others.' She then foretold that the famine and sick- 
ness, that were raging, should both disappear in the spring. 
To Gudrid she prophesied, in return for the services she had 
rendered, a very happy fate in the future, and also that a re- 
nowned family should be descended from her. Afterward, all 
the company went one after another to consult her about the 
future matters that they wished to know, and she gave them 
definite answers. Soon afterward she was invited to another 
house, and went hither; and her prophesies concerning the com- 
ing events of the year were entirely fulfilled." " The Religion 
of the Northmen," by Rudolph Keyser, p. 292. 

^ This king propagated Christianity by physical force, and 
marked the course of his tours by fire and blood; which might 
have been expected from a barbarian just turned from the wor- 
ship of Odin and Thor. 



86 Prk-Columbian Discovery of 

and some other pagan men to come to him. They were 
exhorted to accept religion, which the king easily arranged 
with Leif, when he and all his sailors were baptized, and 
passed the winter with the king, being liberally enter- 
tained. 

SECOND NAEEATIVE. 

Thorvold the son of Us void, son of TJlf, son of Oexne- 
Thorer, and his son, Eric Red, left Jardar, in Norway, on 
account of manslaughter, and took possession of a piece 
of land on Hornastrand [Iceland], and lived there at 
Drangey. There Thorvold died. Eric then married 
Thorhild, daughter of Jorund Atleson and Thorbiarg 
Knarrabringa, whom Thorbiorn of Haukdale afterward 
married. Then Eric went from the north and ploughed 
the fields in Haukdale. Then he lived in Ericstadt by Yats- 
horn. There his Ijiralls ^ let a piece of rock tumble down 

' These thralls were slaves, though slavery in Iceland assumed 
peculiar features. The following, from the " Saga of Gisli 
the Oulaw, ' ' shows the relation that slaves held to freemen. We 
read, that on one occasion, Gisli had borrowed a famous sword 
of KoU, and the latter asked to have it back, but GisH in reply 
asks if he will sell it, receiving a negative reply. Then he says : 
' ' I will give thee thy freedom and thy goods, so that thou mayst 
fare whither thou wilt with other men." This is also declined, 
when Gisli continues: " Then I will give thee thy freedom, and 
lease, or give thee land, and besides I will give thee sheep, and 
cattle and goods, as much as thou needest. " This he also de- 
clines, and Kol, when Gisli asks him to name a price, offering any 
sum of money, besides his freedom, and "a becoming match, if 
thou hast a liking for any one." But Kol refused to sell it at 
any price, which refusal led to a fight, and in the first onset, 
the slave's axe sank into Gisli' s brain, while the disputed 
sword, Graysteel, clove the thick skull of Kol. See the Saga 
of Gisli the Outlaw, p. 6, Edinburgh, 1886. Also the Saga 
of Eric the Red, where Thorbiorn thinks it an indignity that 
Einar should ask for the hand of his daughter in marriage, 
Einar being the son of a slave. 



America bt the Noethmkn. 87 

over Yaltbiof 's house in Valthiosfstadt. But his relation, 
Eyulf Soirs, killed the thralls at Kneide-Brinke above Yats- 
horn. For this cause, Eric killed Eyulf Soirs, He also 
killed Holm-Gang Kafn at Leikskaale. Geirstein and 
Odd at Jorund. Ejulf Soirs' relations brought a suit 
against the slayer. Eric was then banished from Hauk- 
dale and took possession of the islands, Broko and Oexno, 
but lived in Todum at Sydero, the first winter. Then he 
loaned Thorgest his seat-posts. Eric moved to Oexno and 
lived in Ericstadt. Then he demanded his seat-posts, but 
did not get them. Eric took them thereaftei from Bredo- 
bolstad, but Thorgest followed him. They fought near 
the house at Drangey. Two sons of Thorgest fell, and 
some other men. Thereafter they both kept their fol- 
lowers with them. Styr, Eyulf of Svino, Thorbrand's 
sons of Alptefiord, and Thorbiorn Yifilsson, were of 
Eric's party. But Thord Gelleirson, Thorgeir from Hitar- 
dale, Aslak of Langedale, and Illuge's Son helped Thor- 
gest. Eric and his party were sentenced to be banished 
at Thorsness Thing. He iitted out a ship in Ericsfiord, but 
Eyulf concealed him in Dimonsvaag, while Thorgest and 
his men sought after him on the highlands. Thorbiorn, 
Eyulf and Styr followed with Eric out to sea beyond the 
islands. He said that he meant to seek the land Gunn- 
biorn, Ulf Krage's son, saw [A. D. 876] when he was 
driven by a storm west from Iceland and found Gunn- 
biorn's Rocks; though he said at the time that if he dis- 
covered the land he would return to his friends. [A. D. 
982.] Eric laid his course to the west from Snjtefieldness, 
and approached [Greenland] from the sea to land at Mid- 
jokul, in that place that is called Blaesark.^ From thence 
he went along the coast to the south, to see ii the land was 
tit to live in. The first year he stayed all winter in Eirckso, 
nearly in the middle of the west bygd. The next spring 
[A. D. 983] he went to Ericsfiord and there found a dwell- 
ing. Next summer he went to the west bygd and gave 

- Blue shirt. 



88 Pre-Columbian Discovert of 

certain names to many places. The second winter he lived 
in Ericsholm, at Hvarfo Fiedspidse, and at the third sum- 
mer [A. D. 984] he went north to Snsefield, inside of 
Kafnsfiord. He thought then that the place where Erics- 
fiord bent was opposite the place where he came. He then 
returned and spent the third winter in Erickso opposite the 
mouth of Ericsfiord. The next summer [A. D. 985] he 
went to Iceland and landed at Breidafiord. The next win- 
ter he stayed at Holmstater with Ingolf. Next spring he 
fought with Thorgest and lost the battle. That summer 
[A. D. 986], Eric began to settle the land which he had 
discovered and which he called Greenland, because he said 
that the people would not like to move there if the land did 
not have a good name. * Learned men say that twenty -five 
ships went that summer to Greenland from Breidafiord 
and Borgaf jord, but only fourteen arrived. Of the rest, 
some were driven back and others were wrecked. This 
happened fifteen winters before Christianity was introduced 
into Iceland. 

THIRD NARRATIVE. 

The land some call Greenland was discovered and settled 
from Iceland. Eric the Red was the name of the Breida- 
fiord man who [A, D. 986] went from here [Iceland] to 
there, and took possession of that part of the land which 
later was called Ericsfiord. He named the land and called 
it Greenland,^ and said it would encourage people to come 
there if the land had a good name. They found there, 
both east and west, ruins of houses and pieces ol boats, and 
begun stonework.' From which it is to be seen what kind 
of people have lived in Yinland, and which the Green- 
landers call Skraelings, and who had been there. He [Eric] 
began to settle the land fourteen or fifteen years before 
the introduction of Christianity in Iceland. Afterward this 

* Ante, p. 38. 

* Cartier in the Gulf of St. Lawrence gave names that had 
been used before. 

^ The stonework points to Europeans, say the Irish. 



America by the ISToethmen. 89 

was told of Greenland to Tliorkel Gelleirson, by a man 
who had himself followed Eric Red. 



III. THE VOYAGE OF BIARNE. 

The voyage of Biarne to Greenland was attended by 
many hardships. His vessel was blown away from the 
course during a storm, at which time he saw the shores of 
the American Continent, yet he made no attempt to land. 
Of this voyage we have two versions. The first is a trans- 
lation of a passage from Codex Flatoiensis, given in Anti- 
quitates Americanse, p. 17. The second is taken from 
Gronland's Historiske Mindesmserker, or Greenland's 
Historical Monuments, I, 180-1. The date oi this voy- 
age is fixed by the fact that Biarne sailed the same season 
that his father settled in Greenland, which, as we learn 
from the narrative of Eric, was in the year 985. There 
is a complete agreement, in the main points, between this 
account and the preceding. 

FIRST NARRATIVE. 

Heriulf was the son of Bard, Heriulf's son, who was a 
relation of Ingolf the Landuamsman. ' Ingolf gave Heriulf 
land between Yog and Reikianess. Heriulf dwelt first 
at Dropstock. His wife was called Tliorgird, and their 
son was called Biarne.^ He was a promising young man. 
In his earliest youth he had a desire to go abroad, and he 
soon gathered property and reputation; and was by turns 
a year abroad, and a year with his father. Biarne was 
soon in possession of a merchant ship of his own. The 
last winter [A. D. 985] while he was in Norway, Heriulf 
prepared to go to Greenland with Eric, and gave up his 
dwelling. There was a Christian man belonging to the 

' Original settler or freeholder whose name and possessions 
were recorded in the Landanama book. 
' Bear. 



90 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

Hebrides along with Heriulf, who composed the Laj called 
the Hafgerdingar ^ Song, in which is this stave : 

May he whose hand protects so well 
The simple monk in lonely cell, 
And o'er the world upholds the sky. 
His own blue hall, still stand me by.* 

Heriulf settled at Heriulf ness [A. D. 985] and became 
a very distinguished man. Eric Ked took up his abode at 
Brattahlid, and was in great consideration, and honored 
by all. These were Eric's children: Leif, Thorvold, and 
Thorstein ; and his daughter was called Freydis. She was 
married to a man called Thorvald, and they dwelt at Gar- 
dar, which is now a bishop's seat.^ She was a haughty, 
proud woman ; and he was but a mean man. She was much 
given to gathering wealth. The people of Greenland were 
heathen at this time. Biarne came over the same summer 
[A. D. 985] with his ship to the strand * which his father 

' This poem no longer exists. Its subject, the Hafgerdingar, 
is described as a fearful body of water, " which sometimes 
rises in the sea near Greenland in such a way that three large 
rows of waves inclose a part of the sea, so that the ship, inside, 
is in the greatest danger." — Gronland's Historiske Mindis- 
mserker, vol. I, p. 264. There does not appeal to be any bet- 
ter foundation for this notion of the Hafgerdingar than for 
the old accounts of the Maelstrom, once supposed to exist on 
the coast of Norway. The Hafgerdingar may have originated 
from seeing the powerful effect of a cross sea acting on the 
tide. 

■' To this translation may be added another in metre, by 
Beamish : 

O thou who triest holy men! 
Now guide me on my way; 
Lord of the earth's wide vault, extend 
Thy gracious hand to me. 

This appears to be the earliest Christian prayer thus far found 
in connection with this period of American history. 

^ See later on this subject. 

* ^yrar. This is not the name of a place — for Heriulf 
dwelt in Iceland at a place called Dropstock — but of a natural 



America by the Northmen. 91 

had sailed abroad from in the spring. He was much struck 
with the news, and would not unload his vessel. When 
his crew asked him what he intended to do, he replied 
that he was resolved to follow his old custom by taking up 
his winter abode with his father. " So I will steer for 
Greenland if ye will go ■with me." They one and all 
agreed to go with him. Biarne said, " Our voyage will 
be thought foolish, as none of us have been on the Green- 
land sea before. ' ' I*^evertheless they set out to sea as soon 
as they were ready, and sailed for three days, until they 
lost sight of the land they left. But wlien the wind failed 
a north wind with fog set in, and they knew not where 
they were sailing to; and this lasted many days. At last 
they saw the sun, and could distinguish the quarter of the 
sky ; so they hoisted sail again, and sailed a whole day and 
night, when they made land. They spoke among them- 
selves what this land could be, and Biarne said that, in 
his opinion, it could not be Greenland. On the question, 
if he should sail nearer to it, he said, " It is my advice that 
we sail up close to the land." They did so; and they soon 
saw that the land was without mountains, was covered 
with woods, and that there were small hills inland. ' They 
left the land on the larboard side, and had their sheet 
on the land side. Then they sailed two days and nights 
before they got sight of land again. They asked Biarne 
if he thought this would be Greenland; but he gave his 
opinion that the land was no more Greenland than the 
land they had seen before. " For on Greenland, it is said, 
there are great snow mountains." They soon came near 

feature of ground eyri, still called an ay re in the Orkney 
Islands, being a flat sandy tongue of land, suitable for land- 
ing and drawing up boats. All ancient dwellings in those 
islands, and probably in Iceland also, are situated so as to 
have the advantage of this kind of natural wharf, and the spit 
of land called an ayre, very often has a small lake or pond 
inside of it, which shelters boats. — Laing. 
'The "Markland" of Leif. 



92 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

to the land, and saw that it was flat and covered with trees. ^ 
Now, as the wind fell, the ship's people talked of its being 
advisable to make for the land ; but Biarne would not agree 
to it. They thought that they would need wood and water ; 
but Biarne said: "Ye are not in want of either." The 
men blamed him for this. He ordered them to hoist the 
sail, which was done. They now turned the ship's bow 
from the land, and kept the sea for three days and nights, 
with a fine breeze from south-west. Then they saw a third 
land, which was high and mountainous, and with snowy 
mountains. Then they asked Biarne if he would land here ; 
but he refused altogether: '' For in my opinion this land is 
not what we want."^ Now they let the sails stand and 

* This we accept as Labrador, and in the account we notice 
that in this Saga the inland elevations are not considered 
mountains, though Leif in his account as we shall see speaks 
of them as "large snowy mountains of the country." The 
main feature of a high region characterizes both accounts, and 
this undesigned coincidence will have more effect upon the 
mind than the narratives would have afforded, il both had used 
the same language. Besides we are not to suppose that Biarne 
and Leif saw the land in the same place, and at the same 
point the inland hills would deserve the name of mountains more 
than others. Leif 's narrative incorrectly calls this the last point 
visited by Biarne before reaching Greenland. Helluland the 
" Great " and the " Little " were names applied to Labra- 
dor and Newfoundland. The Sagas furnish the correction. 
See the notes on the voyages of Lief which follow. Still it 
must be confessed that the statements are obscure, like even many 
English narrations of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 

^ The details of this voyage are very simple, yet whoever 
throws aside his old time predjuices, and considers the subject 
with the care it deserves, cannot otherwise than feel persuaded 
that Eiarne was driven upon this Continent, and that the 
land seen was the coast of that great territory which stretches 
between Massachusetts and Newfoundland, for there is no 
other land to answer the description. Of course no particular 
merit can be claimed for this discovery. It was also acci- 
dental. Yet Biarne's discovery soon led to substantial results. 



America by the Northmen. 93 

kept along the land and saw it was an island.' Then they 
turned from the land and stood out to sea with the same 
breeze; but the gale increased, and Biarne ordered a reef 
to be taken in, and not to sail harder than the ship and 
her tackle could easily bear. After sailing three days and 
nights, they made, the fourth time, land; and when they 
asked Biarne if he thought this was Greenland or not, 
Biarne replied: " This is most like what has been told me 
of Greenland; and here we shall take to the land." They 
did so, and came to the land in the evening, under a ness, 
where they found a boat. On this ness dwelt Biarne's 
father, Heriulf; and from that it is called Heriulfness. 
Biarne went to his father's, gave up sea-faring, and after 
his father's death, continued to dwell there when at home. 

SECOND NARRATIVE. 

A man named Heriulf, son of Bard, son of Heriulf,' 
a relation to Landnamsman Ingolf, who gave the last- 
named Heriulf the piece of land that lies between Vaag 
and Reikianess. The younger Heriulf went to Greenland, 
when Eric Red began to settle there, and on his ship was 
a Christian man from the South Islands [the Hebrides] 
who was the author of the poem, Ilavgerdingar, in which 
was the following verse : 

I to the monk's protector pray 
That he will give my voyage luck! 
The heaven's great Ruler 
Save me from danger. 

Heriulf took possession of Heriulf sfiord, and became one 
of the chief men. Eric Red took to himself Ericsfiord, 
and lived in Brattahlid, and Leif, his son, after his death. 
Those men who at the same time went away with Eric 
took possession of the following pieces of land: Heriulf 

' The present Island of Disco, called in the Saga of Karl- 
sefne, "Blarney. " 

' This piece makes no reference to the voyage of Biarne, 
but confirms important statements in the first narrative. 



94 Pre-Columbian Discovery op 

Heriulfsfiord, and lie lived in Heriulfness, Ketil Ketilsfiord, 
Rafn Rafnsfiord, Solve Solvedale, Snorro Tliorbrandson 
Alptefiord, Tliorbiornglora SigleHord, Einar Einarstiord, 
Havgrim Havgrimsfiord and Vatnaliverfe, Arnlaug Arn- 
laiigfiord ; but some went to the west bygd. A man named 
Tliorkel Farserk, cousin to Eric Red on their mother's 
side, went to Greenland with Eric, and took possession of 
Hvalsofiord, together with the greater part of the piece 
of land between Eyolfsfiord and Einarsfiord, and lived in 
Hvalosofirde. From him came the Hvalsofiord people. 
He was very strong. Once Eric Red visited him, and he 
would welcome his guest in the best way possible, but he 
had no boats at hand which he could use. He had to swim 
out to Hvalso, and get a full-grown sheep,* and carry it 
on his back home to his house. It was a good half mile. 
Thorkel was buried in a cave in the field of Hvalsofiord. 



lY. LEIF'S YOYAGE TO YINLAND. 

This voyage is recorded in the Flato 3fanuscript, and 
is given in Antiquitates Americance. pp. 26-40. It con- 
tains the account of the voyage of Leif, son of Eric the 
Red, who, following out the hints of Biarne, sailed to dis- 

' Considerable has been said at various times in opposition 
to these accounts, because cattle and sheep, and sometimes 
horses, are mentioned in connection with Greenland. Some 
have supposed that, for these reasons, the Saga must be incor- 
rect. Yet, in more modern times, there has been nothing to pre- 
vent the people from keeping such animals, though it has been 
found better to substitute dogs for horses. Crantz says, that 
in "the year 1759, one of our missionaries brought three sheep 
with him from Denmark to new Herrnhuth. These have so 
increased by bringing some two, some three lambs a year, that 
they have been able to kill some every year since, to send some 
to Lichtenfels, for a beginning there, and, after all, to winter 
ten at present. We may judge how vastly sweet and nutritive 
the grass is here from the following tokens: that tho' three 
lambs come from one ewe, they are larger, even in autumn, 



America by the Northmen. 95 

cover the new land which he called Yinland. on account 
of the quantity of vines that he found growing wild. 
Several extracts are appended, because of interest in con- 
nection with the subject. The Saga o± Eric was written 
in Greenland, a fact not to be overlooked, that of Thor- 
finn having been composed in Iceland.' 

[A. D. 984.] It is next to be told thai Biarne Heriulf- 
son came over from Greenland to Norway, on a visit to 
Earl Eric, who received him well. Biarne tells of this ex- 
pedition of his, in which he had discovered unknown land ; 
and people thought he had nol been very curious to get 
knowledge, as he could not give any account of those coun- 
tries, and he was somewhat blamed on this account. [A. D. 
986.] Biarne was made a Court man of the earl, and the 
summer after he went over to Greenland; and afterward 
there was much talk about discovering unknown lands. 
Leif , a son of Eric Red of Brattahlid, went over ' to Biarne 
Heriulfson, and bought the ship from him, and manned 

than a sheep of a year old in Germany." He says that in the 
summer they could pasture two hundred sheep around New 
Herrnhuth; and that they formerly kept cows, but that it 
proved too much trouble. — History of Greenland^ vol. I, p. 74. 

' There are discrepancies between the Saga of Eric and his 
Son's and those relating to Thorfinn, of such a nature as to leave 
no doubt that they must have come to us from two wholly dis- 
tinct sources. Torfseus was the first to direct attention to 
these discrepancies, at the same time remarking that they were 
of a nature to confirm rather than to disprove the statements. 
The Eric Sagas were evidently composed in Greenland, while 
those relating to Thorfinn had their origin in Iceland. The 
discrepancies are in themselves of very little consequence, 
but they serve to establish the important fact that the Sagas of 
Eric and of Thorfinn must be received as two independent 
authorities." North American Jieview, vol. CXIX, pp. 265-72. 
See ante, p. 

° He must have gone over to Greenland from Norway then, 
as in the year 1000, he returned and introduced Christianity 
into Greenland. The language used is indefinite. 



96 Pbe-Columbian Discovery of 

the vessel, so that in all, there were thirty-five men on 
board. Leif begged his father Eric to go as commander 
of the expedition ; but he excused himself, saying he was 
getting old, and not so able as formerly to undergo the 
hardship of a sea voyage. Leif insisted that he among all 
their relations was the most likely to have good luck on such 
an expedition; and Eric consented, and rode from home 
with Leif, when they had got all ready f oi sea ; but as they 
were getting near the ship,^ the horse on which Eric was 
riding, stumbled, and he fell from his horse' and hurt his 
foot. " Tt is destined," said Eric, "that I should never 
discover more lands than this of Greenland on which we 
live; and now we must not run hastily into this adventure."^ 
Eric accordingly went back to Brattahlid, but Leif, with 
his comrades, in all thirty-five men, rigged out their 
vessel. There was a man from the south country called 

' One recension of the Saga of Eric the Red, states that he 
went with Leif on his voyage to Vinland. Finn Magnussen 
says that the error arose from a change of one letter in a 
pair of short words. See Gronlatid^ s Historiske Mindes7noer- 
ker, vol. I, p. 471. In a similar way the change may have 
been made which incorrectly represents Leif as covaingjirsi to 
the last point visited by Biarne. 

"^ Horses could be kept in Greenland now, only with much 
expense. It appears that anciently it was not so. Undoubt- 
edly there has been more or less change in the climate, during 
the last thousand years by the procession of the equinox. 
Geologists find evidence that at one period a highly tropical 
climate must have existed in the northern regions. Fossil 
figs and tropic trees are among the wonders of Greenland. 

' Superstition was the bane of the Northman's life. He 
was also a firm believer in Fate. The doctrines of Fate held 
the finest Northern minds in a vice-like grasp, so that in 
many cases their lives were continually overshadowed by a great 
sorrow. One of the saddest illustrations of this belief may be 
found in the Saga of GretHr the Strong (given in Baring- 
Gould's work on Iceland), a Saga in which the doctrine appears 
with a power that is well-nigh appalling. 



America by the Northmen. 97 

Tjrker,' with the expedition. [A. D. 1000.] They put the 
ship in order, and went to sea when they were ready. They 
fii-st came to the land which Biarne had last [first] dis- 
covered," sailed up to it, cast anchor, put out a boat and 
went on shore; but there was no grass to be seen. There 
were large snowy mountains ' up the country ; but all the 
way from the sea up to these ridges, the land was one field 
of snow, and it appeared to them a country of no advan- 
tages. Leif said : " It shall not be said of us, as it was of 
Biarne, that we did not come upon the land; for I will 
give the country a name, and call it Helluland.' Then 
they went on board again and put to sea, and found another 
land. They sailed in toward it, put out a boat and landed. 
The country was flat, and overgrown with wood; and the 
strand far around, consisted of white sand, and low toward 
the sea. Then Leif said: " We shall give this land a name 
according to its kind, and called it Markland.' Then 

* Some suppose that he was a German, others claim that he 
was a Turk, as his name might indicate. 

Ante, p. 89. 
^ Snowy mountains, Joklar miklir, such as Chappell men- 
tions having been seen on the coast, June 14, 181 8. 

* Helluland, from Hella, a flatstone, an abundance of which 
may be found in Labrador and the region round about. But 
it should be noted that the country between the sea and the 
mountains or hills was level. Ante, p. 92, note 2. 

^This agrees with the general features of Nova Scotia. The 
North American Pilot describes the land around Halifax, as " low 
in general, and not visible twenty miles off; except from the quarter 
deck of a seventy-four. Apostogon hills have a long, level appear- 
ance, between Cape Le Have and Port Medway, the coast to the 
eastward being level and low, and the shores with white rocks and 
low barren points ; from thence to Shelburne and Port Roseway, are 
woods. Near Port Haldiman are several barren places, and thence 
to Cape Sable, which makes the south-west point into Harrington 
Bay, a low and woody island. ' ' Antiquitates Americance , p. 423. 
Markland is therefore supposed, with great reason, to be Nova 
Scotia, so well described, both in the Saga, and in the Coast Pilot. 



98 Pke-Coltjmbian Discovery of 

they hastened on board, and put to sea again with the wind 
from the nortli-east, and were out for two dajE. and made 
land. They sailed toward it, and came to an island ' which 

Markland means woodland. Two days' sail thence, brought 
them in view of Cape Cod, though very likely the sailing time 
is not correctly given. 

* This island has given the interpreters considerable trouble, 
from the fact that it is said to lie to the northward of the land. 
Professor Rafn, in order to identify the island with Nantucket, 
shows that the north point of the Icelandic compass lay 
toward the east. But this does not fairly meet the case. 
There would, perhaps, have been no difficulty in the interpre- 
tation if the northern antiquaries had been acquainted with 
the fact, that in early times an island existed northward from 
Nantucket, on the opposite coast of Cape Cod. This island, 
together with a large point of land, which now has also dis- 
appeared, existed in the times of Gosnold, who sailed around 
Cape Cod, in 1602. At one time some doubt existed in regard 
to the truthfulness of the accounts of this island, for the 
reason that those portions of land described, no longer existed. 
Yet their positions were laid down with scientific accuracy; 
the outer portion of the island being called Point Care, while 
the other point was called Point Gilbert. Neither Archer nor 
Brereton in their accounts of Gosnold' s voyage, give any name 
to the island; but Captain John Smith, in 1614, calls it " Isle 
Nawset." Smith's History of Virginia, vol. II, p. 183. This 
island was of the drift formation, and as late as little more than 
half a century ago a portion of it still remained, being called 
Slut Bush. The subject has been very carefully gone over by 
Mr. Otis, in his pamphlet on the Discovery of an Ancient Ship 
on Cape Cod. Professor Agassiz, writing December 17, 1863, 
says: "Surprising and perhaps incredible as the statements of 
Mr. Amos Otis may appear, they are nevertheless the direct 
and natural inference of the observations which may be easily 
made along the eastern coast of Cape Cod. Having of late 
felt a special interest in the geological structure of that remark- 
able region, I have repeatedly visited it during the past sum- 
mer, and in company with Mr. Otis, examined, on one occasion, 



America by the Nokthmen. 99 

lay on the north side oi the land, where thej disembarked* 
to wait for good weather. There was dew upon the grass ; 

with the most minute care, the evidence of the former exist- 
ence of Isle Nauset and Point Gilbert. I found it as satisfac- 
tory as any geological evidence can be. Besides its scientific 
interest," he adds, " this result has some historical importance. 
At all events it fully vindicates Archer's account of the aspect 
of Cape Cod, at the time of its discovery in 1602, and shows 
him to have been a truthful and accurate observer." But 
possibly the vindication may extend back even to the Northmen, 
whom the learned professor and his co-laborers did not have 
in mind; especially as this discovery will help very materially 
to explain their descriptions. Now, in the accounts of Thor- 
finn Karlsefne's passage around this part of Vinland, it is said 
that they called the shore Wonder- strand, " because they were 
so long going by." Any one in sailing past the coast to-day 
will be struck with its length. But by glancing at a recon- 
structed map of Cape Cod, the reader will find that the coast 
line is greatly increased, so that in order to pass around the 
cape, the navigator must sail a longer distance than now. 
Comparing the distance traveled with the distance gained, the 
Northmen might well grow weary, and call it " Wonder-strand." 
Our knowledge of this island quite relieves the difficulty that 
was felt by Professor Rafn, who labored to show that the 
island in question was Nantucket, notwithstanding the fact that 
it lay too far east. For a fuller knowledge of Isle Nauset, see 
New-England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol. xviii, p. 
37; and Massachusetts Historical Collections, vol. viii, series iii, 
pp. 72-93. "Webb's Island, " which existed at the close of the last 
century, was the remains of Gosnold's * ' Point Gilbert. ' ' The peo- 
ple of Nantucket formerly used to cut wood there. See Morse's 
Universal Gazeteer, vol. i, p. 357, Ed. 1783. Capt. Vetch anchored 
under Webb's Island Nov. 16, 1701. See O'Callaghan's interest- 
ing monograph " The voyage of the Sloop Mary," Munsell, Al- 
bany, 1866. O'Callaghan says that "it has since been swallowed up 
by the sea. " " Sloop Mary, ' ' pp. ix and 2 7 , also Mass Mag. ( 1 1 1 - 
151), which says, "The water is six fathoms deep on this spot.'' 
^ In speaking of the immediate vicinity of Wonder-strand, 
the second account of Thorfinn's expedition, says: "There 



L.o^O. 



100 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

and, having accidentally gotten some of the dew upon 
their hands and put it in their mouths, they thought that 
they had never tasted any thing so sweet as it was.^ Then 
they went on board and sailed into a sound ^ that was be- 
tween the island and a ness ^ that went out northward from 
the land, and sailed westward ^ past the ness. There was 

were places without harbors," which has always been the case, 
this coast being dangerous; yet it is said above that "they 
landed to wait for good weather." This would be impracti- 
cable now, except at Chatham; yet at that day, notwithstanding 
the absence of harbors, they would find accommodation for 
their small vessel somewhere between the island and the main- 
land. From Bradford's History, p. 217, we learn that in 1626-7 
there was at this place "a small blind harbore " that "lyes 
aboute ye middle of Manamoyake Bay," which to-day is filled 
up by recently formed sandy wastes and salt meadows. This 
"blind harbore," had at its mouth a treacheous bar of sand. 
If this harbor had existed in the days of the Northmen, they 
would not of necessity discover it; and hence while Leif might 
have landed here and found protection, Thorfinn in his much 
larger ship, might have found it needful to anchor, as he appears 
to have done, in the grounds between Isle Nauset and Point Gil- 
bert, while explorations were being made on the land. 

' "Honey dew," says Dr. Webb, "occurs in this neighbor- 
hood." — Antiquitates AmericancR, p. 443. 

' This sound may have been the water between Point Gil- 
bert and Isle Nauset. Modern explorations on the Atlantic 
coast have often given as much trouble as these Icelandic Nar- 
ratives. The voyage of Pring in 1 603 was long a case in hand. 

'Archer says in his account of Gosnold's voyage: "Twelve 
leagues from (the end of) Cape Cod, we descried a point 
(Point Gilbert) with some breach, a good distance off." It 
is said that the ness, or cape, went out northward but we must 
remember that eastward is meant. 

' This is precisely the course they would steer after doub- 
ling that ness or cape which existed in Gosnold's day, and 
which he named Point Gilbert. The author does not agree 
with Professor Rafn, in making this point to be at the east- 



America by the Northmen. 101 

very shallow' water in ebb tide, so that their ship lay 
dry; and there was a long way between their ship and the 
water. They were so desirouf to get to the land that they 
would not wait till their ship floated, but. ran to the land, 
to a place where the river comes out of a lake. Ae soon 
as their ship was afloat they took the boats, rowed to the 
ship, towed her up the riv^er,'' and from thence into the 
lake,^ where they cast anchor, carried their beds out of 
the ship, and set up their tents. They resolved to put 
things in order for wintering there, and they built a 
large house. They did not want for salmon,^ both in the 
river and in the lake; and they thought the salmon larger 
than any they had ever seen before. The country ap- 
peared to them of so good a kind, that it would not be 

ern entrance to Buzzard's Bay. If he had known of the ex- 
istence of the Isle Nauset, he would not have looked for the 
ness in that neighborhood. At that time Cape Malabar prob- 
ably did not exist, as we know how rapidly land is formed in 
the vicinity; yet it would not have attracted notice in compari- 
son with the great broad point mentioned by Archer. 

' After passing Point Gilbert shoal water may almost any- 
where be found which appears to have been the case anciently. 

" The river may have been Seaconnet passage and Pocasset 
river. 

' This lake is thought to answer Mount Hope Bay. The 
writer of the Saga passes over that part of the voyage imme- 
diately following the doubling of the ness. The tourist in 
traveling that way by rail will at first take Mount Hope Bay for 
a lake. 

* Salmon were formerly so plenty in this vicinity, that it is 
said a rule was made, providing that masters should not oblige 
their apprentices to eat this fish more than twice a week. 
Still I may repeat a quotation from Henry V (ist A., sc. 4, 
5) : "I warrant you shall find in the comparisons between 
Macedon and Monmouth that the situation, look you, is both 
alike. There is a river at Macedon, and there is also more- 
over a river at Monmouth; it is called Wye at Monmouth, 
but it is out of my prains what is the name of the other river, 



102 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

necessary to gather fodder for the cattle for winter,^ There 
was no frost in winter, ^ and the grass was not much 
withered. Day and night were more equal than in Green- 
land and Iceland; for on the shortest daj the sun was in 
the sky between Eyktarstad^ and the Dagmalastad. Kow 

but 'tis all one; 'tis alike as my fingers is to my fingers, and 
there is salmon in both." The authenticity of the Sagas does 
not depend upon any of these identifications. 

^ It is well known that cattle in this vicinity can pass the 
winter with little or no shelter, and the sheep on Nantucket, 
can, when necessary, take care of themselves. 

" This is an exaggeration, or, possibly the writer, who was 
not with the expedition, meant to convey the idea that there 
was no frost, compared with what was experienced in Green- 
land and Iceland. The early narrator of the voyage unques- 
tionably tried to make a good impression as regards the cli- 
mate. In so doing, he has been followed by nearly all who have 
come after him. Eric the Red told some almost fabu- 
lous stories about the climate of Greenland; and yet, because 
his accounts do not agree with facts, who is so foolish as to 
deny that he ever saw Greenland ? With as much reason we 
might deny that Leif came to Vinland. With equal reason, 
too, we might deny that Morton was ever at Merry Mount; 
for he tells us, in his New English Canaa?i, that coughs -^nd 
colds are unknown in New England. Leutenant-Governor 
Dudley of Massachusetts complained of false representations 
in his day. See " Footprints of Miles Standish, " p. 24. 

' This passage was misunderstood by Torfaeus, the earliest 
writer who inquired into these questions. He was followed 
by Peringskiold, Malte-Brun and others, who, by their reckon- 
ings, made the latitude of Vinland somewhere near Nova Scotia. 
Yet the recent studies of Rafn and Finn Magnussen, have 
elucidated the point: "The Northmen divided the heavens or 
horizons into eight principal divisions, and the times of the 
day according to the sun's apparent motion through these 
divisions, the passage through each of which they supposed to 
occupy a period of three hours. The day was therefore di- 
vided into portions of time corresponding with these eight divi- 



America by the Northmen. 103 

wlien thej were ready with their house building, [A. D. 
1001] Leif said to his fellow travelers: " Now I will di- 
vide the crew into two divisions and explore the country. 

sions, each of which was called an eykt, signifying an eighth 
part. This eykt was again divided, like each of the grand divi- 
sions of the heavens, into two smaller and equal portions, 
called stimd or wa/. In order to determine these divisions of 
time, the inhabitant of each place carefully observed the diurnal 
course of the sun, and noted the terrestrial objects over which 
it seemed to stand. Such an object, whether artificial or natu- 
ral, was called by the Icelanders dagsmark (daymark). They 
were also led to make these daymarks by a division of the hori- 
zon according to the principal winds, as well as by the wants 
of their domestic economy. The shepherd's rising time, for 
instance, was called Hirdis rismal, which corresponds with 
half-past four o'clock, a. m., and this was the beginning of the 
natural day of twenty-four hours. Reckoning from Hirdis 
rismal the eighth stund or eighth half eykt ended at just half- 
past four p. M., and therefore this particular period was called 
Kai' €|oxV» EYKT. This eykt strictly speaking, commenced at 
three o'clock p. m., and ended at half-past four p. m., 
when it was said to be in eyktarstadr or the termination of the 
eykt. The precise moment that the sun appeared in this place 
indicated the termination of the artificial day {dagr) and half 
the natural day (dagr) and was therefore held especially deserv- 
ing of notice; the hours of labor, also, are supposed to have 
ended at this time. Six o'clock a. m., was called midr mor- 
gufi; half -past seven a. m., Dagmal; nine a. m., Dagverdar- 
mal. Winter was considered to commence in Iceland about 
the seventeenth of October, and Bishop Thorlacius, the calcu- 
lator of the astronomical calendar, fixes sunrise in the south 
of Iceland on the seventeenth of Octobei at half-past seven 
a. m. At this hour, according to the Saga, it rose in Vinland 
on the shortest day, and set at half -past four p. M., which 
date fix the latitude of the place at 41° 43' 10" being nearly 
that of Mount Hope Bay." See Mem. Atitiq. du Nord, 
1836-7, p. 165. Rain's calculations make the position 41° 24' 
lo". It is based on the view that the observation was made 



104 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

Half shall stay at home and do the work, and the other 
half shall search the land; bnt so thai they dc not go far- 
ther than they can come back in the evening, and that they 
do not wander from each other." This they continued to 
do for some time. Leif changed about, sometimes with 
them and sometimes with those at home. Leif was a stout 
and strong man and of manly appearance, and was, besides, 
a prudent and sagacious man in all respects. 

It happened one evening that a man of the party was 
missing, and it was the south countryman, Tyrker, Leif 
was very sorry for this because Tyrker had long been in 
his father's house, and he loved Tyrker in his childhood. 
Leif blamed his comrades very much, and proposed to go 
with twelve men on an expedition to tind him; but they 
had only gone a short way from the station when Tyrker 
came to meet them, and he was joyfully received. Leif 
soon perceived that his foster father' was quite merry. 

in Vinland when only the upper portion of the disc had appeared 
above the horizon. The difference, of course, is not im- 
portant. Thus we know the position of the Icelandic settle- 
ment in New England. See Antiquitates Atnericanae, p. 436. 
Also a different view in Cleasby's Icelandic Dictionary, p. 135. 
' In those turbulent times children were not brought up at 
home, but were sent to be trained up in the families of trusty 
friends. This was done to preserve the family line. Often, 
in some bloody feud, a household would be destroyed, yet the 
children being out at foster, would be preserved, and in due 
time come to represent the family. In Leif's day heathenism 
and lawlessness were on the decline. We have a true picture 
given us by Dasent, of the way in which children were treated 
in the heathen age. He says: "With us an old house can 
stand upon a crooked as well as upon a straight support. But 
in Iceland, in the tenth century, as in all the branches of that 
great family, it was only healthy children that were allowed to 
live. The deformed, as a burden to themselves, their friends, 
and to society, were consigned to destruction by exposure 
to the violence of the elements. This was the father's stern 
light, and though the mothers of that age were generally blest 



America by the Northmen. 105 

Tjrrker had a high forehead, sharp eyes, with a small face, 
and was little in size, and ugly; but was very dexterous 
in all feats.* Leif said to him, "Why art thou so late, 

with robust offspring, still the right, was often exercised. As 
soon as it was born, the infant was laid upon the bare ground, 
and, until the father came and looked at it, heard and saw 
that it was strong in lung and limb, took it up in his arms and 
handed it over to the nurse, its fate hung in the balance and 
life or death depended upon the sentence of its sire. That 
danger over, it was duly washed, signed with the Thunderer's 
(Thor's) holy hammer — the symbol of all manliness and strength 
— and solemnly received into the family as the faithful cham- 
pion of the ancient gods. When it came to be named there 
was what we should call the christening ale. There was sad- 
dling, mounting and riding among kith and kin. Cousins 
came in bands from all points of the compass; dependents, 
freedmen and thralls all mustered strong. The ale is broached, 
the board is set, and the benches are thronged with guests; 
the mirth and revelry are at the highest, when in strides into 
the hall a being of awful power, in whom that simple age set 
full faith. This was the Nome, the wandering prophetess, 
sybil fortune teller, a woman to whom it was given to know 
the weirds of men, and who had come to do honor to the child, 
and tell his fortune. . . . After the child was named, he was 
often put out to foster with some neighbor, his father's inferior 
in power, and there he grew up with the children of the house, 
and contracted those friendships and affections which were 
reckoned better and more binding than the ties of blood." 
^ There is nothing in this to indicate that Tyrker was intoxi- 
cated, as some have absurdly supposed. In this far off land 
he found grapes, which powerfully reminded him of his own 
country, and the association of ideas is so strong, that when 
he first meets Leif, he breaks out in the language of his child- 
hood, and, like an ordinary epicure, expresses his joy, which 
is all the more marked on account of his grotesque appearance. 
Is not this a stroke of genuine nature, something that a writer, 
framing the account of a fictitious voyage, would not dream 
of ? Similar cases are found in literature. — Antiquaires du 
Nord, 1859, pp. 8-9. 



106 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

my foster father? and why didst thou leave thy comrades?" 
He spoke at first long in German, rolled his eyes and knit 
his brows; they could not make out what he was say- 
ing. After a while, and some delay, he said in Icelandic, 
"I did not go much further than they; and yet I have 
something altogether new to relate, for I found vines 
and grapes. " ' "Is that true, my foster father ? ' ' said Leif . 
"Yes, true it is," answered he, "for I was born where 
there was no scarcity of grapes." They slept all night, 
and the next morning Leif said to his men, "[N'ow we shall 
have two occupations to attend to, and daj about; namely, 
to gather grapes or cut vines, and to fell wood in the for- 
est to lade our vessel." This advice was followed. It 
is related that their stern boat was filled with grapes, and 
then a cargo of wood was hewn for the vessel.^ Toward 
spring they made ready and sailed away, and Leif gave 
the country a name from its products, and called it Yin- 
land.^ They now sailed into the open sea and had a fair 

' Grapes grow wild almost everywhere on this coast. They 
may be found on Cape Cod ripening among the scrub oaks, 
almost within the reach of the open spray, where 'the author 
has gathered them in Truro. On the contrary grapes were not 
really found in Nova Scotia. 

' In Peringskiold's Heimskringla, which Laing has followed 
in translating Leif's voyage for his appendix, this statement of 
the cutting of wood is supplemented by the following state- 
ment: "There was also self-sown wheat in the fields, and a 
tree which is called massur. Of all these they took samples; 
and some of the trees were so large that they were used in 
houses." It is thought that the massur wood was a species of 
maple. Others have declared that it must have been mahogany, 
and therefore that the account of Leif's discovery is false. 
They forgot that even George Popham, in writing home to his 
patron from Sagadahoc, in 1607, says that among the produc- 
tions of the country are "nutmegs and cinnamon." Yet shall 
we infer from this that Popham never saw New England? 

'Adam of Bremen, who wrote 1075, after he had made a 
ivsit to the king of Denmark, at whose court he heard of the 



America by the Korthmen. 107 

wind until they came in sight of Greenland and the land 
below the ice mountains. Then a man put in a word and 
said to Leif, "Why do you steer so close on the wind?" 
Leif replied: "I mind my helm and tend to other things 
too; do you notice any thing?" They said that they saw 
nothing remarkable. "1 do not know," said Leif, "whether 
I see a ship or a rock." Then thej looked and saw that 
it was a rock. But he saw so much better than they, that 
he discovered men upon the rock. "Now I will," said 
Leif, "tliat we hold to the wind, that we may come up to 
them if they should need help ; and if they should not be 
friendly inclined, it is in our power to do as we please 
and not theirs." Now they sailed under the rock, 
lowered their sails, cast anchor, and put out another small 
boat which they had with them. Then Tyrker asked who 
their leader was. He said hie name was Thorer, and that 
he was a Northman;^ "But what is your name?" said 

exploits of the Icelanders, says: "Besides it was stated by 
the King that a region had been discovered by many in that 
[Western] ocean which was called Winland, because vines 
grow there spontaneously, making excellent wine; for that 
fruits, not planted grow there of their own accord, we know 
not by false rumors, but by the certain testimony of the Danes. ' ' 
See also, Rafn's Antiqiiitates, etc., p. 319. 

' These were evidently Norwegian traders who were ship- 
wrecked while approaching the coast and sailing for the Green- 
land ports. Here attention may be called to the truthful 
description of the Sagas as one proof of their authenticity 
and historical value. We employ the well-considered words 
of Henry Cabot Lodge, who says; 

"The Sagas may then be accepted as authentic historical 
records. A detailed examination of them would result in 
almost complete proof of Norse visits to America. Such an 
examination would be impossible within the limits of a notice, 
but some of the most striking portions are worthy of attention 
If one takes a map of North America, it will be seen at once 
that a vessel starting from Cape Farewell and steering almost 
due south would make the coast of Newfoundland, possibly 



108 Pke-Columbian Discoveky of 

he. Leif told liis name. "Are you the son of Eric the 
Red of Brattalilid?" he asked. Leif said that was so. 
"Kow I will," said Leif, "take ye and all on board my 
ship, and as much of the goods as the ship will store." 
Tbey took up this offer, and sailed away to Erichord 
with the cargo, and from thence to Brattalilid, where 
they unloaded the ship, Leif offered Thorer and his wife, 

Labrador. The first land made by the Northmen after leaving 
Greenland was Helluland, distinguished by its rocky appear- 
ance, like the northern Newfoundland coast. Further to the 
south, the next shores would be that of Nova Scotia, a thickly 
wooded country, and called by the Northmen Markland. Sev- 
eral days of open water and Cape Cod or Cape Kiarlarness 
would be reached The description of the cape in the Sagas, 
where it is frequently mentioned, corresponds perfectly with 
Cape Cod. The features of the shore are accurately described, 
long stretches of flats and sand dunes rising up behind them. 
To the south of this cape a bay was entered by the Norsemen, 
and named from its numerous currents, for which Buzzard's 
Bay is remarkable. The large island covered with the eggs 
of sea-birds lies in the southern part of the bay. The long 
beaches of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket are famous to-day, 
as in the tenth century, for large quantities of sea-fowl's eggs. 
In this country wild grapes grew in great profusion. Even 
supposing great changes of climate, this fact may be fairly 
taken to exclude Greenland and Labrador, in both of which 
countries wild grapes would be an anomaly. Grapes do grow, 
however, in Rhode Island. Examples might be multiplied. 
It is a very strong case of cumulative evidence. Vinland must 
have been some portion of the eastern coast of the American 
Continent. Nothing then is more likely than that the Norse- 
men visited New England. The description of the Sagas coin- 
cide exactly with the south-eastern coast of Rhode Island and 
Massachusetts. The Sagas are in the main certainly accurate 
and truthful. If these premises are admitted, and it seems 
impossible to deny them, the visits of the Norsemen are suffi- 
ciently well proved. ' North American Review, vol. cxix, 
p. 177. 



America by the Northmen. 109 

Gudrid, and three others, lodging with himself, and offer- 
ing lodging elsewhere for the resi ol the people, both of 
Thorer's crew and his own. Leif took fifteen men from 
the rock, and thereafter was called Leif the Lucky. After 
that time Leif advanced greatly in wealth and considera- 
tion. That winter sickness came among Thorer's people, 
and he himself, and a great part of his crew, died. The 
same winter Eric Red died. This expedition to Vinland 
was much talked of, and Leif 's brother, Thorvald, thought 
that the country had not been explored enough in different 
places. Then Leif said to Thorvald, "You may go, 
brother, in my ship to Yinland if you like ; but I will first 
send the ship for the timber which Thorer left upon the 
rock." So it was done. 

SECOND NARRATIVB. 

The same spring King Olaf , as said before, sent Gissur 
and Hialte* to Iceland. The king also sent Leif to Green- 
land to proclaim Christianity there. The king sent with 
him a priest and some other religious men, to baptize the 
people and teach them the true faith. Leif sailed the same 
summer to Greenland ; he took up out of the ocean the peo- 
ple of a ship who were on a wreck completely destroyed, 
and in a perishing condition. On thi? same voyage he dis- 
covered Yinland the Good,^ and came at the close of sum- 

' Gissur, called the White, was one of the greatest lawyers 
of Iceland. We read that "there was a man named Gissur 
White, he was Teit's son, Kettlebiarne the Old's son, of Moss- 
fell (Iceland). Bishop Isleif was Gissur's son. Gissur the 
White kept house at Mossf ell, and was a great Chief. ' * Saga of 
Burnt Nial, vol I, p. 146. 

2 Hialte was doubtless the same person who entered the 
swimming match with King Olaf. See Saga of Olaf Tryggves- 
son. 

^ This is an error, unless the wiiter means that the voyage 
to Vinland, afterward undertaken, was a part of the same gene- 
ral expedition. Leif went to Greenland first, as we have already 
seen. 



110 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

mer to Brattahlid, to his father Eric. After that time 
the people called him Leif the Fortunate; but hie father 
Eric said that these two things went against one another; 
that Leif had saved the crew of the ship, and delivered 
them from death, and that he had [brought] that bad man 
into Greenland, that is what he called the priest; but after 
much urging, Eric was baptized,' as well as all the people 
of Greenland. 

THIRD NARRATIVE. 

The same winter, Leif, the son of Eric the Red, was in 
high favor with King Olaf, and embraced Christianity. 
But the summer that Gissur went to Iceland, King Olaf 
sent Leif to Greenland, to proclaim Christianity. He 
sailed the same summer for Greenland. He found some 
men in the sea on a wreck, and helped them; the same 
voyage,' he discovered Yinland the Good, and came at har- 
vest time to Greenland. He brought with him a priest 
and other religious^ men, and went to live at Brattahlid 
with his father Eric. He was afterward called, Leif the 
Fortunate. But his father Eric said, that these two things 
were opposed to one another, because Leif had saved the 
crew of the ship, and brought evil men to Greenland, 
meaning the priests. 

Y. THORVALD ERICSON'S EXPEDITION. 

The greater portion of this voyage appears to have been 
performed during two summers, the expedition, after visit- 
ing the Bay of Boston, finally returning to Greenland on 
account of the death of their leader. The narrative is 
taken from Codex Flatoiensis as given in Antiquitates 
Americanae. 

* These pagans did not always yield even so readily as Eric. 
Some in Norway died foi the faith of Odin. See Saga of 
Olaf Tryggvesson [passim) in vol. I, of Heimskringla . 

' See note to foregoing account. 

' These appear to have been members of some Order. 



America by the ISTorthmen. Ill 

Now Thorvald [A. D. 1002] made ready for his voyage 
with thirty men, after consulting hie brother Leif. They 
rigged their ship, and put to sea. Nothing is related of 
this expedition until they came to Yinland, to the booths 
put up by Leif, where they secured the ship and tackle, 
and remained quiet all winter and lived by fishing. In 
the spring [A. D. 1003] Thorvald ordered the vessel to be 
rigged, and that some men should proceed in the long- 
boat westward along the coast, and explore it during the 
summer.^ They thought the country beautiful and well 
wooded, the distance small between the forest and the sea, 
and th3 strand full of white sand. There were also many 
islands and very shallow water. They found no abode for 
man or beast, but on an island far toward the west, they 
found a corn barn constructed oi wood.'' They found no 
other traces of human work, and came back in autumn to 
Leif 's booths. The following spring [A. D. lOOi] Thor- 
vald, with his merchant ship, proceeded eastward, and to- 
ward the north along the land. Opposite to a cape^ they 

' Assuming that the expedition was located in Rhode Island, 
this westward exploration would indicate a movement along 
the shore of Connecticut, which answers well enough to the 
description. 

' A building of this character would point to Europeans, 
possibly Irish, who, according to the minor narratives, preceded 
the Icelanders in America, possibly Ireland the Great. 

' This cape was not Point Gilbert, but the terminus of Cape 
Cod, known as "Race Point," a dangerous place for naviga- 
tion. It would seem that this was the locality referred to, 
for the reason that the next place mentioned is the shore near 
Plymouth, which is readily seen from the end of Cape Cod 
in a clear day. Here there is a hiatus in the narrative. It 
was the vicinity of Race Point that they called "Kialarness, " 
or Keel Cape. From Cape Cod it would seem they crossed 
to Plymouth, whose heights were in view of the cape in clear 
weather, and then worked along eastward, though the passage 
across the mouth of Cape Cod Bay is not mentioned, reaching 
the mouth of Boston Harbor, where Thorvald said, "Here 



112 Prp>Columbian Discovery of 

met bad weather, and drove upon the land and broke the 
keel, and remained there a long time to repair the ves- 
sel. Thorvald said to his companions: "We will stick up 
the keel here upon the ness, and call the place Kialarness;" 
which they did. Then they sailed away eastward along 
the country, entering the mouths of the bays, to a point 
of land which was everywhere covered vtdth woods. They 
moored the vessel to the land, laid out gangways to the 
shore, and Thorvald, with all his ship's company, landed. 
He said, " Here it is so beautiful, and I would willingly 
set up my abode here." ' They afterward went on board, 
and saw three specks upon the sand within the point, and 
went to them and found there were three skin boats with 
three men under each boat. They divided their men and 
took all of them prisoners, except one man, who escaped 
with his boat. They killed eight of them, and then 
went to the point and looked about them. Within this 
bay they saw several eminences, which they took to be 
habitations. Then a great drowsiness came upon them 
and they could not keep themselves awake, but all of them 

it is beautiful," even as John Smith wrote of it as "the Para- 
dise of all these parts," and where evidently the French had 
been before him. Indeed every thing goes to prove, that from 
the time of Allefonsce, 1542, down to Bellinger, 1583, the 
French often resorted thither. If we are correct in this view, 
Boston is a singularly appropriate place for a monument to the 
Northmen. Afterward they speak of "the bay'' and habita- 
tions, all of which is in keeping with Boston Harbor. Who- 
ever takes the trouble to analyze the language, will discover 
by the occasional hiatus that the writer speaks from a fullness 
of knowledge, and that he could have added many particulars, 
showing that he was writing about actual events. 

^ Here, Antiqtiitates Americance, p. 42, is followed, instead 
of Peringskiold, whose version does not mention the point of 
land. This place is regarded as Point Alderton, below Boston 
Harbor. Thorvald evidently sailed along the shore to this 
point, which is the most remarkable on the east coast. 



America by the Northmen. 113 

fell asleep.^ A sudden scream came to them and they 
all awoke; and mixed with the scream they thought they 
heard the words: "Awake, Thorvald, with all thy com- 
rades, if ye will save your lives. Go on board your ship 
as fast as you can, and leave this land without delay." 
In the same moment an innumerable multitude, from the 
interior of the bay, came in skin boats and laid themselves 
alongside. Then said Thorvald, ""We shall put up our 
war screens^ along the gunwales and defend ourselves 
as well as we can, but not use our weapons much against 
them." They did so accordingly. The Skraellings ^ shot 

' Nothing supernatural is here intended, simply the result of 
fatigue 

" These screens were made of planks which could be quickly 
arranged above the bulwarks, thus affording particular protec- 
tion against arrows and stones. 

" These people are sometimes called Smsellingar, or small 
men. Others deduce their name from skraela, to dry, allud- 
ing to their shriveled aspect; and otheis from skraekia to shout. 
It is evident from the accounts of Egede and Crantz, that 
they formerly inhabited this part of the country, but were 
gradually obliged to go northward. It is well known that in 
other parts of America, these migrations were common. They 
were more likely to take refuge in Greenland than even the 
Northmen themselves. Critics have been concerned to know 
how it comes that the people met by the Northmen in New 
England appeared to be Esquimaux, and not Red Indians. 
This is because the Red Indians had not then become masters 
of the coast, which was held by a littoral people who once 
occupied the coast from Florida to Greenland, being the de- 
scendants of what may be called the " glacial man." The 
Indian who said that the Great Spirit gave him the country, 
simply wrested it from the Skraellings, whose stone imple- 
ments are now, perhaps, those found in the Trenton gravels. 
See author's Glacial Man in America; Pop. Science Review, 
vol. XVIII, p. 31. The skin boats of the Skraellings were in 
keeping with habits of a littoral people. The Red man who 
followed used bark, or fashioned canoes out of solid logs, as 
described by Sebastian Cabot, Verrazano and Lescarbot. 



114 Pbe-Columbian Discovert of 

at them for a while, and then fled away as fast as they 
could. Then Thorvald asked if anyone was wounded, 
and they said nobody was hurt. He said: "I have a 
wound under the arni.^ An arrow flew between the gunwale 
and the shield under my arm ; here is the arrow and it will 
be my death wound. Now I advise you to make ready 
with all speed to return ; but ye shall carry me to the point 
which I thought would be so convenient for a dwelling. 
It may be that it was true what I said, that here would I 
dwell for a while. Te shall bury me there, and place a 
cross at my head and one at my feet, and call the place 
Crossness." Christianity had been established in Green- 
land at this time;^ but Eric Red was dead ^ before Chris- 
tianity was introduced. Now Thorvald died, and they 
did everything as he had ordered. Then thej went away 

' The conduct of Thorvald indicates magnanimity of character, 
thinking first of his men, and afterward of himself. 

' Christianity was re-introduced into Greenland by Leif, Thor- 
vald' s brother, in 1 001-2, ante, p. 

' This is evidently an error, for the Catholic Religion was 
introduced by Leif, before he sailed on his voyage to Vin- 
land. Errors like this abound in all early annals, and why should 
Icelandic chronicles be free from them? Every such case will 
be impartially pointed out. The treatment of this passage by 
Smith, in his Dialogues on the North?neti, p. 127, is far from 
being candid. He translates the passage thus: "But Eric the 
Red had died without professing Christianity," and refers the 
English reader to the Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne, Antiquitates 
A/nericance, pp. 119-20, as if he would there find a reason for 
his rendering of the text, which is unequivocal, and is trans- 
lated literally above. On turning to the authority in question, 
we find nothing more said than that "Eric was slow to 
give up his (pagan) religion," and that the affair caused a 
separation between him and his wife. That he was slo7v 
to give up his pagan belief would seem to indicate that he 
did give it up eventually. Moreover we have the direct 
statement that he was baptized. See second Narrative of 
Leif, ante, p. 109. 



Amkkica by the Northmen. 115 

in search of their fellow- voyagers,' and they related to each 
other all the news. They remained in their dwelling all 
winter, and gathered vines and grapes,^ and put them on 
board their ships. Toward spring, they prepared to return 
to Greenland, where they arrived with their vessel, and 
landed at Ericsfiord, bringing heavy tidings to Leif. 



YI. THOKSTEIN ERICSONS' ATTEMPT TO FIND 
VINLAND. 

This version is fi'om Codsx Flatoiensis, and is given in 
Antiquitates AinericancB, pp. 47-55. The expedition was 
wholly unsuccessful, and the leader finally died without 
reaching the desired land. One cannot help believing, 
notwithstanding the marvelous events recorded, that the 
basis of this account is formed of solid fact. The narra- 
tive is not one likely to have been invented by an impos- 
tor, especially as there was no motive suggesting imposture. 



In the meantime it had happened in Greenland that 
Thorstein of Ericsfiord had married and taken to wife [A. 
D. 1005] Gudrid,' the daughter of Thorbiorn, who had 
been married, as before related, to Thorer, the Eastman.* 
Thorstein Ericson bethought him now that he would go 
to Vinland for his brother Thorvald's body. He rigged 
out the same vessel and chose an able and stout crew. 
He had with him twenty-five men and hie wife Gudrid, 

' That is, they returned around Cape Cod to the rendezvous 
in Rhode Island. 

^ Gathering and drying them, evidently. 

^ This Gudrid who was rescued from the rock in the sea by 
Leif Ericson, is now married the second time, and as we shall 
see later on, was married a third time, and became the head 
of a most important family, afterward going to Rome. 

* Norway lay east of Iceland, and hence the people of that 
country were sometimes called Eastmen. 



116 Pbe-Columbian Discovery of 

and as soon as they were readj he put to sea. They quickly 
lost sight of the land. They drove aboul on the ocean the 
whole summer without kuowing where they were,^ and 
in the first week of winter * they landed at Lysifiord in 
Greenland, in the western settlement. Thorstein looked for 
lodgings for his men and got his whole ship's crew accom- 
modated, but not himself and wife, so that for some nights 
they had to sleep on board. At that time Christianitj was 
but recent in Greenland. One day, early in the morning, 
some men came to their tent and the leader asked them 
what people were in the tent? Thorstein replies, "Two; 
who is it that asks ? " " Thorstein," was the reply, " and 
I am called Thorstein the Black, and it is my errand here 
to offer thee and thy wife lodging beside me." Thor- 
stein said he would speak to his wife about it, and as she 
gave her consent he agreed to it. "Then I shall come for 
you to-morrow with my horses,^ for I do not want means to 
entertain you ; bitt few care to live in my house ; I and my 
wife live lonely, and I am very gloomy. I have also a 
different religion* from yours, although I think the one you 
have the best. ' ' Now the following morning he came for 
them with horses, and they toot up their abode with Thor- 
stein Black, who was very friendly toward them. Gudrid 
had a good outward appearance and was knowing, and un- 
derstood well how to behave with strangers. Early in the 
winter a sickness prevailed among Thorstein Ericson's peo- 
ple, and many of his ship-men died. He ordered that cof- 

^ If Vinland had been situated in Labrador, it would be 
rather idle to suppose that they could have lost the summer 
in trying to find it. This expedition aimed at reaching the 
place called "Crossaness," Cape of the Holy Cross, near the 
Bay of Boston. 

''Winter began October 17. 

^ They probably had, at least, diminutive horses or ponies 
in Greenland like those of Iceland to-day. 

* Thorstein Black was a pagan, who nevertheless saw the 
superior value of the new Faith. 



America by the Noethmen. 117 

fills should be made for the bodies of the dead and that they 
should be brought on board and stowed away carefully, 
for he said, *' I will transport all the bodies to Ericsfiord 
in summer.'" It was not long before sickness broke out 
in Thorstein Black's house, and his wife, who was called 
GrimLild, fell sick first. She was very stout and as strong 
as a man, but yet she could not bear up against the illness. 
Soon after Thorstein Ericson also fell sick and they both 
lay ill in bed at the same time; but Grimhild, Thorstein 
Black's wife, died first. When she was dead, Thorstein 
went out of the room for a skin to lay over the corpse. 
Then Gudrid said, "My dear Thorstein, be not long away," 
which he promised. Then said Thorstein Ericson, "Our 
housewife is wonderful, for she raises herself up with her 
elbows, moves herself forward over the bed-frame, and is 
feeling for her shoes." In the same moment, Thorstein 
the Goodman, came back, and instantly Grimhild laid her- 
self down, so that it made every beam that was in the house 
crack. Thorstein now made a coffin for Grimhild 's corpse, 
removed it outside, and buried it. He was a stout and 
strong man, but it required all his strength to remove the 
corpse from the house. Now Thorstein Ericson's illness 
increased upon him, and he died, which Gudrid, his wife, 
took with great grief. They were all in the room, and 
Gudrid had set herself upon a stool before the bench on 
which her husband Thorstein's body lay. Now Thor- 
stein the Goodman took Gudrid from the stool in his arms, 
and set himself with her upon a bench just opposite to 
Thorstein's body,^ and spoke mucli with her. lie con- 
soled her, and promised to go with her in summer to Erics- 
fiord, with her husband Thorstein's corpse, and those of 
his crew. "And," said he, " I shall take with me many 
servants to console and assist. ' ' She thanked him for this. 

* See The Graves of the Northmen, Church Monthly, 1865. 

' We here must remember the simphcity of manners, which 
then (as now) prevailed among the Icelanders. It is said that, 
the tourist in Iceland is surprised by the absence of prudery. 



118 Pkk-Columbian Discovert of 

Thorstein Ericson then raised himself up and said, "Where 
is Gudrid ?" And thrice he said this; but she was silent. 
Then she said to Thorstein the Goodman, "Shall I give 
answer or not?" He told her not to answer. Then went 
Thorstein the Goodman across the room, and sat down in 
a chair, and Gudrid set herself on his knee; and Thor- 
stein the Goodman said: " What wilt thou make known ?" 
After a while the corpse replies, " I wish to tell Gudrid 
her fate beforehand, that she may be the better able to 
bear my death ; for I have come to a blessed resting place. 
This I have now to tell thee, Gudrid, that thou wilt be 
married to an Iceland man, and ye will live long together 
and from you will descend many men, brave, gallant and 
wise, and a well-pleasing race of posterity. Ye shall go 
from Greenland to Norway, and from thence to Iceland, 
where ye shall dwell. Long will ye live together, but thou 
wilt survive him; and then thou shalt go abroad, and go 
southward,^ and shall return to thy home in Iceland. 
And there must a church be built, and thou must remain 
there and be consecrated a nun, and there end thy days. "^ 

' That is, visit Italy, and especially Rome. 

" Whoever inclines to dismiss this narrative as an idle fiction, 
must remember that all history is more or less pervaded by 
similar stories. The Rev. Cotton Mather, in his Magnalia 
of New England, gives the account of a great number of super- 
natural events of the same character as this related in the 
Snga. Some are ludicrous in the extreme, and others are 
horrible, both in their inception and end. Among other stories, 
is that of Mr. Phillip Smith, deacon of the church at Hadley, 
Mass., and a member of the General Court, who appears to 
have been bewitched. He was finally obliged to keep his 
bed. Then it is said that the people "beheld fire sometimes on 
the bed; and when the beholders began to discourse of it, it van- 
ished away. Divers people acually felt something often stir in the 
bed, at a considerable distance from the man; it seemed as big 
as a cat, but they could never grasp it. Several trying to lean 
on the bed's head, tho' the sick man lay wholly still, the 
bed would shake so as to knock their heads uncomfortably. 



America by the Northmen. 119 

And then Thorstein sank backward, and bis corpse was put 
in order and carried to tbe sbip. Thorstein the Goodman 
did all that he had promised. He sold in spring [A. D. 1006] 
his land and cattle, and went with Gudrid and all her 
goods ; made ready the ship, got men for it, and then went 

A very strong man could not lift the sick man, to make him lie 
more easily, tho' he apply'd his utmost strength unto it; and 
yet he could go presently and lift the bedstead and a bed, and 
a man lying on it, without any strain to himself at all. Mr. 
Smith dies. . , . After the opinio ft of all had pronounc'd 
him dead, his countenance continued as lively as though he had 
been alive. . . . Divers noises were heard in the room where 
the corpse lay; as the clattering of chairs and stools, whereof 
no account could be given." — Magnalia, ed. 1853, vol. I, p. 
455. The account is vouched for by the author, who was one of 
the most learned divines of his day. Another is given, among 
the multitude of which he had the most convincing proof. He 
writes: "It was on the 2d day of May, in the year 1687, that 
a most ingenious, accomplish'd and well-dispos'd young gentle- 
man, Mr. Joseph Beacon by Name, about 5 o'clock in the 
morning, as he lay, whether sleeping or waking he could not 
say (but he judged the latter of them), had a view of his 
brother, then at London, although he was himself at our Bos- 
ton, distanc'd from him a thousand leagues. This his brother 
appear'd to him in the morning (I say) about 5 o'clock, at 
Boston, having on him a Bengale gown, which he usually 
wore, with a napkin ty'd about his head; his countenance was 
very pale, ghastly, deadly, and he had a bloody wound on the 
side of his forehead. 'Brother,' says the afif righted Joseph, 
'Brother,' answered the apparition. Said Joseph, 'What's the 
matter. Brother ? how came you here ?' The apparition replied, 
'Brother, 1 have been most barbarously and inhumanly murdered 
by a debauch' d fellow, to whom I never did any wrong in my 
life. ' Whereupon he gave a particular description of the murderer ■, 
adding, 'Brother, this fellow, changing his name, is attempting 
to come over to New England in Foy or Wi/d; I would pray you 
on the arrival of either of these, to get an order from the gov- 
ernour to seize the person whom I now have describ'd, and then 



120 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

to Ericsfiord. The body was buried at the church.' 
Gudrid went to Leif' s at Brattahlid, and Thorstein the 
Black took his abode in Ericsfiord, and dwelt there as 
long as he lived ; and was reckoned an able man. 



VII. THORFINN KARLSEFITE'S EXPEDITION 
TO VINLAND. 

This was in many respects the most important expedition 
to New England, both as regards the numbers engaged, 
and the information and experience derived. We have 
three different accounts of the expedition. The first is 
from the somewhat lengthy Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne, 
in the Arnm-MagncBan Collection; the second is from the 
Saga of Eric the Red, being called " The Account of 
Thorfinn; " while the third is a briefer relation from Codex 
Flatoiensis. The first two may be found in Rafn's An- 
tiquitates Americans, pp. 75-200; while the last is also 
given in the same work, on pp. 55-64. 

The Saga of Karlsefne is occupied largely at the begin- 
ning with accounts of various matters connected with social 
life; yet, as such subjects are not essential to the treat- 
ment of the voyage, they are all omitted, except the account 

do you indict him for the murder of your brother.' And so 
he vanished." Mather then adds an account, which shows that 
Beacon's brother was actually murdered as described, dying 
within the very hour in which his apparition appeared in Bos- 
ton. He says that the murderer was tried, but, with the aid 
of his friends, saved his Ufe. Joseph himself, our author says, 
died " a pious and hopeful death," and gave him the account 
written and signed with his own hand. While New England 
history affords marvelous stories like this, men incline to ques- 
tion an Icelandic writer, because he occasionally indulges in 
things of the same sort. Rather should we look for them as 
authentic contemporary signs, like the well-attested marvels that 
disturbed the Wesley family. 

' Thorhild's Church. See AntiquitaUs Americana^ p. 119. 



America by the Northmen. 121 

of Thorfinn's marriage with tlie widow of Thorstein 
Ericson. 

The notes to the narrative of Leif's expedition, which 
precede this Saga in the chronological order, do awaj with 
the necessity of treating a numbei of important points sug- 
gested again in the present narrative. 

It is believed that the principal manuscript of Thorfinn 
Karlsefne is an autograph by one of his descendants, the 
celebrated Hank Erlandson, the Governor or Lagman of 
Iceland, in 1295, who also was one of the compilers of the 
Landnama-hoh. Erlandson was the ninth in descent from 
Thorfinn. Torfseus, who supposed that this manuscript 
was lost, knew it only through corrupt extracts in the col- 
lection of Biorn Johnson. 

There will be found a substantial agreement between 
the different accounts, notwithstanding they ma;y not have 
been composed by eye witnesses. The differences are 
evidently such as would not appear in the case of three 
writers who had banded togethei for the purpose of carry- 
ing out a historical fraud. The Saga of Thorfinn, we may 
again remind the student, was written in Iceland, while 
that of Eric was composed in Greenland. The account 
from the Flato Manuscript was probably written in the 
island which bears that name, and is extremely brief, 
wanting many essential particulars. It is time, however, 
that we had done talking about fraud in connection with 
the work of the Icelanders, who knoM; no spirit of rivalry 
and were not competing with any foreign claimants. 

NARRATIVE OF THORFINN KARLSEFNE. 

There was a man named Thord who dwelt at Hofda, 
in Hofda- Strand. He married Fridgerda, daughter of 
Thorer the Idle, and of Fridgerda, the daughter of Kiar- 
val. King of the Irish. Thord was the son of Biarne But- 
ter'-Tub, son of Thorvald, son of Aslak, son of Biarne 
Ironsides, son of Ragnar Lodbrok. They had a son named 

' Byrdusmjor. 



122 Pjre-Columbian Discovert of 

Snorre, who married Thorhild the Partridge, daughter 
of Thord Geller. They had a son named Thord Horsehead. 
Thorfinn Karlsefne^ was his son, whose mother's name was 
Thoruna, Thorfinn occupied his time in merchant voy- 
ages and was thought a good trader. One summer he 
fitted out his ship for a voyage to Greenland, attended by 
Snorre Thorbrandson of Alptafiord, and a crew of forty 
men. There was a man named Biarne Grhnolfson of 
Breidafiord, and another named Thorhall Gamlason of 
Austfiord. These men fitted out a ship at the same time 
to voyage to Greenhmd. They also had a crew ' of forty 
men. This ship and that of Thorfinn, as soon as they 
were ready, put to sea. It is not said how long they were 
on the voyage; it is only told that both ships arrived at 
Ericsfiord in the autumn of that year, Leif " and other 
people rode down to the ships and friendly exchanges were 
made. The captains requested Leif to take whatever he 
desired of their goods. Leif, in return, entertained 
them well and invited the principal men of both ships to 
spend the winter with him at Brattahlid. The merchants 
accepted his invitation with thanks. Afterward their goods 
were moved to Brattahlid, where they had every entertain- 
ment that they could desire ; therefore their winter quarters 
pleased them much. When the Yule feast began, Leif 

^ "Karl" is the equivalent of the Anglo-Saxon "Carl," sig- 
nifying a "Man." "Efni " finds its equivalent in the Latin 
Materia, signifying "Stuff." "Mannsefni" stood for a "prom- 
ising man," and "Karlsefni" foT a "real " or "sterUng " man. 
The name was often used in the sense of a nickname, and indi- 
cated that the person to whom it was applied was made of 
" good stuff." See i?ifra, p. 148, n. i. 

^ Throughout this narrative of Thorfinn, the name of Eric 
occurs where that of Leif should be given. Eric died five 
years before Thorfinn came over to Greenland. This account 
having been written in Iceland, the author made a very natural 
mistake in supposing that Eric was still at: the head of the fam- 
ily. The proper change has been made in the translation to 
avoid confusion. 



America by the Northmen. 123 

was silent and more depressed than usual. Then Karl- 
sefne said to Leif : "Are you sick, friend Leif ? you do not 
seem to be in your usual spirits. You have entertained 
us most liberally, for which we desire to render you all the 
service in our power. Tell me what it is that ails you." 
" You have received what I have been able to ofEer you," 
said Leif, " in the kindest manner and there is no idea in 
my mind that you have been wanting in courtesy; but I 
am afraid lest when you go away it may be said that you 
never saw a Yule' feast so meanly celebrated as that which 
draws near at which you will be entertained by Leif of 
Brattahlid." " That shall never be the case, friend," 
said Karlsefne, " we have ample stores in the sliip; take 
of these what you wish and make a feast as splendid as you 
please." Leif accepted this offer and the Yule began. So 
well were Leif's plans made, that all were surprised that 
such a rich feast could be prepared in so poor a country. 
After the Yule feast, Karlsefne began to treat with Leif, 
as to the marriage of Gudrid, Leif being the person to 
whom the right of betrothal belonged. Leif gave a fav- 
orable reply, and said she must fulfill that, destiny which 
fate had assigned,^ and that he had heard of none except a 
good report of him ; and in the end it turned out that 
Karlsefne married Gudrid, and their wedding was held 
at Brattahlid, this same winter. 

[A. D. 1007.] The conversation often turned at Brattah- 
lid, on the discovery of Yinland the Good, and they said 

* Yule was a pagan festival held originally in honor of Thor, 
the God of War, at the beginning of February, which was 
the opening of the Northman's year. But as Christianity had 
been established in Greenland for five years, the festival was 
now probably changed to December, and held by the Church 
in honor of Christ. 

^ Ante, p. 1 1 8. Widow of Thorstein Ericson. Rafn thinks, 
as she is mentioned m this Saga by two names, Gudrid and 
Thurid, that one was her name in childhood, and the other 
in her maturer years, when Christianity came to have a prac- 
tical bearing. Her father's name was Thorbiorn, derived from 



124 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

that a voyage there had great hope of gain.' After this 
Karlsefne and Snorre made ready for going on a voyage 
there the following spring. Biarne and Thorhall Gam- 
lason, before mentioned, joined him with a ship. There 
was a man named Thorvald, who married Freydis, natural 
daughter of Eric the Red, and he decided to go with them, 
as did also Thorvald, son of Eric.^ Thorhall, commonly 
called the Hunter, who had been the huntsman of Eric in 
the summer, and his steward in the winter, also went. 
This Thorhall was a man of immense size and of great 
strength, and dark complexion and taciturn, and when he 
spoke it was always jestingly. He was always inclined 
to give Leif evil advice. He was an enemy to Christianity. 
He knew rfluch about desert lands; and was in the same 
ship with Thorvord and Thorvald. These used the ship 
which brought Thorbiorn from Iceland. There were in 
all, forty men and a hundred.^ They sailed to the West 
district [of Greenland] , and thence to Blarney ; * hence 

Thor. It was supposed that those who bore the names of gods 
would find in these names a charm or special protection from 
danger. 

' It was gain, not glory. They never boasted of their voyages. 

° This is a mistake, Eric's son was dead and buried at Cros- 
saness in Vinland. It must have been another Thorvald. 

' The Northmen had two ways of reckoning a hundred, the 
short and the long. The long hundred was a hundred and 
twenty. We read in Tegner's Frithiof s Saga: 

" But a house for itself was the banquet hall, fashioned in fir wood; 
Not five hundred, though told ten dozen to every hundred. 
Filled that chamber so vast, when they gathered for Yule tide 
carousing." 

American ed., chap. Ill, p. 13. 

Professor Rafn infers that the long hundred was here meant, 
because he thinks that the central inscription on Dighton 
Rock indicates CLI., the number of men Karlsefne had with 
him, after losing nine. But are we sure that the Rock bears any 
Runic letters ? 

* The present island of Disco, also called by the Northmen 
Biarney, or Bear Island. 



America by the Northmen. 125 

they sailed south a night and a day. Then land was seen, 
and they launched a boat and explored the land; they 
found great flat stones, many of which were twelve ells 
broad. There were a great number of foxes there. They 
called the land Helluland.* Then they sailed a daj and a 
night in a southerly course, and came to a land covered 
with woods, in which there were many wild animals. Be- 
yond this land to the south-east, lay an island on which 
they slew a bear. They called the island Bear island, ^ and 
the land, Markland. Thence they sailed long south by 
the laud and came to a cape. The land lay on the right 
[starboard] side of the ship, and there were long shores 
of sand. They came to land, and found on the cape, the 
keel of a ship, from which they called the place Kiar- 
larness,^ and the shores they also called "Wonder-strand, 
because it seemed so long sailing by.* Then the land be- 
came indented with coves, and they ran the ship into a 
bay,^ whither they dii'ected their course. King Olaf Trygg- 

* The northern coast of America was called Helluland the 
Great, and Newfoundland, Helluland, or Little Helluland. — 
Antiquitates Americance, p. 419. The sailing time is put too 
short. 

' Supposed to be the Isle of Sable, but probably not. 

^ Thorvald had left the keel of his vessel here on the point 
of this cape, which was Cape Cod. In calling it by this name, 
they simply followed his example, as in the case of Helluland 
and Markland. 

* Ante, p. 99, n. 

^ If correct in regard to the general situation, this bay was 
probably the bay then situated between Point Gilbert and Isle 
Nauset, which Professor Agassiz proves to have existed. The 
writers do not mention this island in either of the accounts of 
Thorfinn's voyage; but it has been shown that Isle Nauset 
lay close to the shore, so that they might not know that it was 
an island without particular examination; and, if they were 
aware of its existence, it was not necessary to speak of it. Leif 
landed upon it, and therefore, it was mentioned by the author 
who wrote the account of his voyage. Yet Thorfinn's chron- 



126 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

vesson had given Leif two Scots/ a man named Haki and 
a woman named Hekia; tliey were swifter of foot than 
wild animals. These were in Karlsefne's ship. When 
they had passed beyond Wonder-strand, they put these 
Scots ashore, and told them to run over the land to the 
south-west, three days, and discover the nature of the land, 
and then return. They had a kind of garment that they 
called kifal, that was so made that a hat was on top, and 
it was open at the sides, and no arms ; fastened between the 
legs with a button and strap, otherwise they were naked. 
When they returned, one had in his hand a bunch of 
grapes, and the other a spear of wheat. They went on 
board and afterward the course was obstructed by anotlier 
bay. Beyond this bay was an island,^ on each side of 

iclers help to prove its existence, by showing that beyond Won- 
der-strand there was a bay where they rode at anchor for three 
days. It must be noticed that the events are not set down 
in their exact order, for, after the writer gets the vessels into the 
bay, he goes back to speak of the landing of the Scots, which 
is often the case where a writer is full of his subject. Gos- 
nold anchored in the same place in the night, and in the morn- 
ing he remarked the number of coves, or as he calls them 
"breaches," in the land. The Saga mentions the same thing, 
saying, that the land "became indented with coves." These 
coves have now disappeared, yet the testimony of Gosnold 
seems to show how accurately the Northmen observed this part 
of the coast. Like Gosnold, they found it convenient and safe 
to lie here for awhile. See Ante, p. 99, on "Sloop Mary." 

^ This is the first we hear of slaves in Vinland. We have 
already seen that among the proud Northmen, slavery, "thrall- 
dom," was a reality. One of the near relations of Ingolf, 
the first Northman who settled in Iceland, was murdered by 
his Scotch (Irish) slaves. See on their dress, Rafn Antiquitates, 
p. 140, note a. The grain found was called "Hveiti, " wheat, 
or in general language "corn," not meaning the Indian maize. 

" This, if we are correct, was Nantucket or Martha's Vine- 
yard, then perhaps united, forming one island. Great changes 
have taken place in that entire region. 



America by the Northmen. 127 

wliicli was a rapid current, that tliej called the Isle of Cur- 
rents.- There was so great a number of eider ducks * there, 
that thej could hardly step without treading on their eggs. 
They called this place Stream Bay.^ Here they brought 
their ships to land, and prepared to stay. They had with 
them all kinds of cattle. The situation ol the place* was 
pleasant, but they did not care for any thing, except to 
explore the land. Here they wintered without sufficient 
food. The next summer [A. D. 1008], failing to catch 
fish, they began to want food. Then Thorhall the Hunter 
disappeared. 

They found Thorhall, whom they sought three days, 
on the top of a rock, where he lay breathing, blowing 
through his nose and mouth, and muttering. They asked 
why he had gone there. He replied thai this was nothing 
that concerned them.^ They said that he should go home 
with them, which he did. Afterward a whale was cast 
ashore* in that place; and they assembled and cut it up, 
not knowing what kind of a whale it was. They boiled 
it with water and ate it, and were taken sick. Then 
Thorhall said: "Now you see that Thor' is more prompt 

' Straiimey, or Straum Isle, which indicates the powerful 
currents in this region. 

" The gull, or some similar bird is here referred to. 

' Buzzard's Bay. See note to p. 101. 

^ The shore opposite Martha's Vineyard. 

^ It would appear from what follows that he was engaged in 
a heathen invocation. This is the only instance on record of 
honor being paid to this heathen god on the shores of New 
England, yet we unwittingly recognize him every time we say 
"Thursday," that is, "Thor's Day." 

" In olden times a certain portion of every whale cast ashore 
on Cape Cod, formed a perquisite of the clergy. Drift whales 
were set apart to swell the fund in aid of building Trinity 
church New York. 

"^ Literally the Red-beard, as Thor, the Thunderer, was sup- 
posed to have had a beard of that color. The principal deity 
of the Northmen was Odin, a king who died in his bed in 



128 Pee-Columbian Discovery of 

to give aid than jour Christ. This was cast ashore ae a 
reward for the hymn which I composed to my patron 
Thor, who rarely forsakes me. ' ' ' When they knew this 
they cast all the remains of the whale into the sea, and 
commended their aifairs to God, After which the air be- 
came milder, and opportunities were given for fishing. 
From that time there was an abundance of food ; and there 
were beasts on the laud, eggs in the island, and fish in the 
sea 

They say that Thorhall desired to go northward around 
Wonder-strand to explore Yinland, but Karlsefne wished 
to go along the shore south. Then Thorhall prepared him- 

Sweden, and was afterward apotheosized. He was called 
the "Terrible god.'' The souls of men slain in battle were 
received by him into the hall of the gods. Next was Frey, 
considered a god of earth. Thor the Red-beard was synony- 
mous with Jupiter. These three composed the supreme coun- 
cil of the gods. Afterward came the good and gentle Balder, 
with him came Brage, patron of eloquence and poetry, and his 
wife Iduna, charged with the care of certain apples. Also 
Heimdal the porter of the gods and builder of the rainbow, and 
Loke, a kind of Satan or evil principle aided by his children, 
the Wolf Fenris, the Serpent Midgard, and Hela or Death. 
The American red-breasted Robin is sacred to the red-bearded 
Thunderer; which explains the belief in some quarters, that 
whoever injures a robin will be struck by lightning. 

^ The Saga has already stated {ante, p. 124) that Thorhall 
" knew much about desert lands." He appears as a stubborn 
and pronounced character, full of his own opinions. Now, 
therefore, we have an illustration of the man. The critic 
should place the man's character and attainments in connec- 
tion with this performance, and note how thoroughly they are 
in keeping. These statements are of the nature of undesigned 
coincidences, and show here, as a multitude of instances 
elsewhere demonstrate, that the writer was treating well- 
known characters in connection with a well-known voyage. 
These are the points which should be dwelt upon by the 
student. 



America by the Northmen. 129 

self at the island,- but did not have more than nine men 
in his whole company, and all the others went in the com- 
pany of Karlsefne. "When Thorhall was carrying water 
to his ship, he sang this verse: 

' People said when hither I 
Came, that I the best 
Drink would have, but the land. 
It justly becomes me to blame; 
I, a warrior, am now obliged 
To bear the pail ; 
Wine touches not my lips. 
But I bow down to the spring." 

When they made ready and were about to sail, Thor- 
hall sang: 

" Let us return 
Thither where [our] countrymen rejoice, 
Let the ship try 
The smooth ways of the sea; 
While the strong heroes 
Live on Wonder-strand 
And there boil whales, 
Which is an honor to the land." * 

Afterward he sailed north to go around "Wonder-strand 
and Kiarlarness, but when he wished to sail westward, they 
were met by a storm from the wesi and driven to Ireland, 
where they were beaten and made slaves. As merchants ' 
reported, there Thorhall died. 

' This is obscure about the "island," but the statement 
when duly considered proves again that we are reading a 
genuine narrative, and that there was a well-known island at 
this point. Every hiatus in the narrative must prove suggestive 
to the critical mind. 

' This is Thorhall' s sarcasm. 

' The period of the Danish invasion of Ireland, which lasted 
during two centuries, was nearly drawing to its close, and this 
party of Scandinavians, speaking the language of the invaders, 
fell upon the coast of Ireland in evil times, and were fortu- 
nate in saving their lives, being recognized as foes of Ireland. 
This is quite an unexpected evidence of the historic character 
9 



130 Pee-Columbian Discovekt of 

It is said that Karlsefne, with Snorre and Biarne and his 
comrades, sailed along the coast south. They sailed long 
until they came to a river flowing down from the land 
through a lake into the sea, where there were sandy shoals, 
where it was impossible to pass up, except with the high- 
est tide. Karlsefne sailed up to the mouth of the river 
with his folk, and called the place Hop.' Having come 
to the land, they saw that where the ground was low 
corn^ grew, and where it was higher, vines were found. 
Every river was full of fish. 

They dug pits where the land began, and where the 
land was highest; and when the tide went down, there 
were sacred fish in the pits.' There were a great number 

of the Saga, which lands Thorhall at the right time to receive 
the welcome due to invaders who had filled Ireland with fire 
and blood for generations. 

' This may correspond to Mount Hope Bay. The Taunton 
river runs through it, and thence flows to the sea by Pocasset 
river and Seconnet passage. Hop is from the Icelandic / 
Hopi, to recede, hence to form a bay. The coincidence in 
the name is curious. The fact that there is no lake here has 
been pointed out by one who appeared to have a fair equip- 
ment for criticism; but who, nevertheless, failed to recognize 
the fact that words equivalent to "Lake" were applied by 
Scandinavians to arms and branches of the sea, as well to 
waters entirely enclosed by land. In Scotland, where the North- 
men colonized, and so generally employed their own nomen- 
clature, the popular usage is that of the Scandinavians, arms 
of the sea being, like the lakes, designated as "Lochs,'' while 
the Irish have the word "Lough." The Icelandic, in this case, 
is "vatn, " generally meaning "water," but in the present 
connection it means a lake, like the English "Derwent Water." 
Rafn translates it lacus. 

" Wheat. Sialfsana hveitiakrar. 

' In Iceland the halibut is called the Sacred Fish. Pliny 
uses the same name, which indicates that the water is safe 
where they were found. The halibut and most of the flat fish 
such as flounders, abound in that vicinity. The flounders are 



America by the Northmen. 131 

of all kinds of wild beasts in the woods. They stayed there 
half a month and enjoyed themselves, and did not notice 
any thing; they had their cattle with them. Early one 
morning, when they looked around, they saw a great many 
skin boats, and poles were swung upon them, and it sounded 
like reeds shaken by the wind, and they pointed to the 
sun. ' Then said Karlsef ne, ' ' What may this mean ? ' ' 
Snorre Thorbrandson replied, " It may be that this is a sign 
of peace, so let us take a white shield and hold it toward 
them." They did so. Thereupon they rowed toward 
them, wondering at them, and came to land. These peo- 
ple were swarthy and fierce, and had bushy hair on their 
heads; they had very large eyes and broad cheeks. They 
stayed there for a time, and gazed upon those they met, 
and afterward rowed away southward around the ness. 

Karlsef ne and his people had made their houses above 
the lake, and some of the houses were neai the lake, and 
others more distant. They wintered there, and there was 
no snow, and all their cattle fed themselves on the grass.' 

easily taken, and those who know how, often find them in very 
shoal water, burrowing just under the surface of the sand like 
a king crab. The Icelandic name of the hsh is Helgis fiskar 
c-'nd the Danish, Heleflyndre, which Rafn exhibits as Pleor- 
nectes Hippoglossus. Professor Horsford points out what he 
believes to have been ancient pits to catch fish, on the Charles 
river. 

' Davis, speaking of the natives of Greenland, in his voyage 
of 1585, says, that, to indicate peaceful intentions, they pointed 
to the sun with their hands, after striking their breasts, refus- 
ing to trust themselves to the English until they had done the 
same, through one of their number appointed for the purpose, 
" who stroke his breast and pointed to the sunne after their 
order." This pointing to the sun in token of peace, taken with 
the description of the people, shows conclusively that the people 
seen by Karlsefne and Davis may have been the same tribe or 
race, formerly occupying a more southern locality. 

^ This is language that might be employed by an Icelander, 
to indicate the difference between the new country and his 



132 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

But when spring came [A. D. 1009] they sa-w one morning 
early, that a number of canoes rowed from the south 
around the ness; so many, as if the sea were sown with 
coal; poles were also swung on each boat. Karlsefne and 
his people then raised up the shield, and when they came 
together they began to trade. These people would rather 
have red cloth; for this they offered skins and real furs. 
They would also buy swords and spears, but this, Karl- 
sefne and Snorre forbade. For a whole fur skin, the 
Skraellings took a piece of red cloth, a span long, and 
bound it around their heads. Thus went on their traffic 
for a time. Next the cloth began to be scarce with Karl- 
sefne and his people, and they cut it up into small pieces, 
which were not wider than a finger's breadth, and yet the 
Skraellings gave just as much as before, and more. 

It happened that a bull which Karlsefne had ran out of 
the wood and roared aloud; this frightened the Skrsel- 
lings, and they rushed to their canoes and rowed away 
toward the south. After that they were not seen for 
three whole weeks. But at the end of that time, a great 
number of Skraelling's ships were seen coming from the 
south like a rushing torrent, all the poles turned from the 
sun, and they all yelled very loud. Then Karlsefne's 
people took a red ^ shield and held it toward them. The 
Skrfellings leaped out of their vessels, and after this, 
they went against each other and fought. There was a 

own. It may have been an intentional exaggeration, similar 
to those of Eric in describing Greenland. Yet even if it were 
a serious attempt at history, it could not be regarded as far- 
ther from the truth than Dr. Cotton IVfather's description of 
the cHmate of New England, where he tells us, in his Christian 
Philosopher, that formerly water, tossed up in the air, came 
down ice; and that in one place in Massachusetts it actually 
snowed wool, some of which he preserved in a box in his study. 
See his "Christian Philosopher." Of late years the snow on 
lower Cape Cod has failed to appear as formerly. 

' The red shield was the sign of war, and the white, of 
peace. 



America by the Northmen. 133 

hot shower of weapons, because the Skraellings had shngs. ' 
Karlsefne's people saw that thej raised upon a pole a 
very large ball, something like a sheep's paunch, and of 
a blue color; this they swung from the pole over Karl- 
sefne's men, upon the ground, and it made a great noise 
as it fell down.* This caused great fear with Karlsefne 
and his men, so that they only thought of running away; 
and they retreated along the river, foi it seemed to them 
that the Skrsellings pressed them on all sides. They did 
not stop until they came to some rocks where they made 
a bold stand. Fredps came out and saw that Karlsefne's 
people fell back, and she cried out, " Why do you run, 
strong men as you are, before these miserable creatures 
whom I thought you would knock down like cattle ? If 
I had arms, methinks I could tight bettei thau an^ of you. ' ' 
They gave no heed to her words. Freydis would go with 
them, but she was slower because she was pregnant; still 
she followed after them in the woods. She found a dead 
man in the woods; it was Thorbrand Snorreson, and there 

' Davis mentions their slings, and his general description of 
the people agrees with that of the Icelanders. See Inventio 
Fortunata. 

^ This can be explained. These people, doubtless, had their 
own ideas of the best method of conducting a fight. They 
were evidently Esquimaux, and formerly, according to Crantz, 
appear to have lived on this coast before it was occupied by 
the Indians, who, being a superior race, soon drove them away. 
But by referring to Schoolcraft's work on the Indians (vol. 
I, p. 83,) we find that such an instrument was actually em- 
ployed in this country at a very early period. Schoolcraft 
says that many generations ago the natives used to sew up a 
round boulder in the skin of an animal and hang it upon a 
pole which was borne by several warriors, and when brought 
down suddenly upon a group of men produced consternation and 
death. This mode of warfare, learned perhaps by the In- 
dians from the Skraellings, has not been practised for the last 
three hundred years, but prevailed at the period when the 
Northmen were in America. 



134 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

stood a flat stone stuck in his head; tlib sword lay naked 
by his side. This she took up and made ready to defend 
herself. Then came the SkrajUing.' toward her; she drew 
out her breasts from under her clothes and dashed them 
against the naked sword. By this the Skrsellings became 
frightened and ran off to their ships and rowed away.' 
Karlsefne and his men then came up and praised her cour- 
age. Two men fell on Karlsefne's side, but a number 
of the Skrsellings. Karlsefne's band was overmatched. 
Next they went home to their dwellings and bound up 
their wounds, and considered what people that was that 
pressed upon them from the land side. It now seemed to 
them that it could have hardly been real men from the ships, 
but that these must have been optical illusions. The Skrael- 
lings also found a dead man and an axe lay by him; one 
of them took up the axe and cut wood with it, and then 
one after another did the same and thought it was a fine 
thinor and cut well. After that one took it and cut at a 
stone so that the axe broke, and then they thought that it 
was of no use because it would not cut stone, and they cast 
it away." 

^ In the Irish Saga of Cuchalain Hght is thrown upon the 
action. It was considered by the Irish geis, or tabu, to be- 
hold the exposed breast of a woman, yet the ladies of Emania 
resorted to this course in order to restrain the king when rush- 
ing upon his destiny. It is said, "He is the first of whom it is 
re'^ounted that women uncovered before him their bosoms." 
See Hyde's Literary History of Ireland, pp. 301-348. It 
would appear that the idea prevailed among the Icelanders 
also, and that Freydis used this means as a last resort, think- 
ing that the enemy would be intimidated. 

2 The narrator goes back to mention what appeared to him 
curious incidents. These Skraellings were still in the Stone 
Age, and evidently did not know the use oi iron. Stone was 
the'r standard of excellence, and when the iron would not cut 
the stone they threw it away. From the third account of 
Karlsefne's expedition we shall see that the man killed was a 
Skrselling. Abbott's researches show, beyond question, that 



America by the Northmen. 135 

Karlsefne and his people now thought they saw, that 
although the laud had many good qualities, they still would 
always be exposed to the fear of attacks from the original 
dwellers. They decided, therefore, to go away and to re- 
turn to their own land. They coasted northward along the 
shore ' and found five Skrsellings clad in skins, sleeping 
near the sea. They had with thenj vesseh containing ani- 
mal marrow mixed with blood. ^ Karlsefne's people thought 
that these men had been banished from the land; they 
killed them. After that they came to a ness, and many 
wild beasts were there, and the ness was covered all over 
with dung from the beasts which had lain there during the 
night. !Now they came back to Straumfiord, and there was 
a plenty of everything that they wanted to have. [It is 
thus that some men say that Biarne and Gudrid stayed 
behind and one hundred men with them, and did not go 
farther; but that Karlsefne and Snorre went southward 
and forty men with them, and were no longer in Hop 
than barely two months, and the same summer came back.] ^ 
Karlsefne then went with one ship to seek Thorhall the 
Hunter, but the rest remained behind, and they sailed 
northward past Kiarlarness, and thence westward, and the 
land was upon their larboard hand. There were wild 
woods over all, as far as they could see, and scarcely any 
open places. When they had sailed long a river ran out 
of the land east and west. They sailed into the mouth of 
the river, and lay by its bank.^ 

the Indian was preceded by a people like the Esquimaux, whose 
stone implements are found in the Trenton gravel, large num- 
bers of which are shown in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge. 
See Abbott's work on "The Trenton Valley Stone Implements." 

' This may have been a short exploration up Narragansett Bay. 

" The ancient Mexicans mixed human blood with bread offered 
on the altar of their deities. 

^ The lines inclosed in brackets, convey what the writer 
understood to be a mere rumor. This report was evidently 
untrue, yet it shows his honest intentions. 

*They appear to have sailed around Cape Cod, then steered 



136 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

It chanced one morning that Karlsefne and his people 
saw opposite in an open place in the woods, a speck which 
glittered in their sight, and thej called out towards it, 
and it was a Uniped,^ which thereupon hurried down to 
the bank of the river, where they lay. Thorvald Ericson 
stood at the helm, and the Uniped shot an arrow into his 

across to Plymouth, coasted up the shore and entered Boston 
harbor, or some other river mouth. 

' Einfoeti?igr, from eifi, one, and fotr, foot. This term 
appears to have been given by some old writers, to one of the 
African tribes, on account of a peculiarity of dress, which 
Wormskiold describes as a triangular cloth, hanging down so 
low, both before and behind, that the feet were concealed. 
In an old work called Rimhigla, a tribe of this class, dwelling in 
Blaland, Ethiopia, are thus described. — Beamish, p. loi. We 
do not say how far the Saga writer employs his fancy on the 
Uniped, yet he is quite excusable, considering the weakness 
of modern writers. In 1634, Hans Egede wrote as follows 
about a hideous monster: "July 6, a most hideous sea monster 
was seen, which reared itself so high above the water, that 
its head overtopped our mainsail. . . . Instead of fins, it had 
broad flaps like wings; its body seemed to be overgrown like 
shell work. ... It was shaped like a serpent behind, and when 
it dived, . . . raised its tail above the water, a whole ship's 
length." — Egede's Greenland, p. 85; Crantz's Greetilatid, 
vol. Ill, p. 1x6. Hudson even describe a mermaid. St. Augus- 
tine in one place refers to Unipeds. 

The Rev. Dr. Cotton Mather, who has before been quoted, 
gives among other notable facts in his Magnalia, the state- 
ment, that in June, 1682, Mary Hortado, of Salmon Falls, 
was going with her husband ''over the river in her canoe, 
when they saw the head of a man, and about three feet off, the 
tail of a cat swimming before the canoe, but no body to join 
them. ... A stone thrown by an invisible hand after this, 
caus'd a swelling and a soreness in her head; and she was 
bitten on both arms black and blue, and her breast scratched. 
The impression of the teeth, which were like a man's teeth, 
were seen by many." — Magnalia, vol. I, p. 454. 



America by the Northmen. 137 

bowels. Thorvald drew out the arrow and said: "It has 
killed me ! To a rich land we have come, but hardly 
shall we enjoy any benefit from it." Thorvald soon after 
died' of his wound. Upon this the Unipcd ran away to 
the northward. Karlsefne and his people went after him, 
and saw him now and then, and the last time thej saw him, 
he ran out into a bay. Then they turned back, and a man 
sang these verses: 

The people chased 
A uniped 

Down to the beach. 
Behold he ran 
Straight over the sea — 
Hear thou, Thorfinn ! 

They drew off to the northward, and saw the country 
of the Unipeds, but they would not then expose their 
men any longer. They looked upon the mountain range 
that was at Hop, and that which they now found,' as all 
one, and it also appeared to be of equal length from 
Straumfiord to both places. The third winter they were 
in Straumfiord. They now became much divided by party 
feeling, and the women were the cause of it, foi those who 
were unmarried would injure those who were married, and 
hence arose great disturbance. There was born the first 
autumn, Snorre, Karlsefne 's son, and he was three years 
old when they went away. "When they sailed from Yin- 
land they had a south wind, and then came to Markland, 

'■ Evidently this name is wrongly given; Thorvald Ericson 
had been killed in a previous expedition. The second narra- 
tive of Karlsefne says that this Thorvald was a relation of Eric. 

2 Probably the Blue Hills of Milton, which are considered 
as extending almost if not quite, to Mount Hops, in Rhode 
Island. The distance is given conjecturally, but it shows 
that the writer was describing a veritable voyage, reminding 
one of some of the statements with regard to hills in Wey- 
mouth's voyage to Kennebec. Some critics demand form 
the Northmen more exact descriptions of the coast than are 
given by many navigators of the seventeenth century. 



138 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

and found tliere five Skraellings, and one was bearded ; two 
were females, and two boys; thej took the boys, but the 
others escaped, and the Skraellings sank down in the 
ground." These boys they took with tlieni; they taught 
them the language, and they were baptized. They called 
their mother Vathelldi, and their father, Uvsege. They 
said that two kings ruled over the Skraellings, and that 
one was named Avalldania, but the other Yalldidia." They 
said that no houses were there. People lived in caves or 
in holes. They said there was a land on the other side, 
just opposite their country, where people lived who wore 
white clothes, and carried poles before them, and to these 
were fastened flags, and they shouted loud; and the peo- 
ple think that this was White-man's land, or Great Ire- 
land.' 

Biarne Grimolfson was driven with his ship into the 
Irish ocean, and they came into a worm sea,* and soon the 
ship began to sink under them. They had a boat which 
was smeared with oil, for the worms do not attack that. 

' That is, they fled into hiding places or got into under- 
ground abodes. 

'' If we are correct in supposing that there was a glacial 
man, and that the Skraellings were descendants of such a gla- 
cial man, it follows that we have in the Sagas foui of his words, 
which may be the oldest known words of human speech: 
Vathelldi, Uvaege, Avalldania, and Valldidia, the names of 
the parents of the Skrselling boys, and of the two kings. At 
least, in a recent note addressed to the writer, Prof. Max Mul- 
ler says, that there is nothing in the language of the Esqui- 
maux to prevent us from assigning it to an antiquity as high 
as that of the supposed glacial man. See "Glacial Man," 
etc. Popular S. Rev., xviii, p. 39. 

^ The location of this place will be discussed in the minor 
narratives. 

* This was the teredo, which is often so destructive, and 
which caused Columbus to abandon a ship at Puerto Bello, be- 
cause he could not keep her afloat. See Irving's Co/umdusy 
p. 287. 



America by the Korthmen. 139 

They went into the boat, and then saw that it could not 
hold them all. Then said Biarne: ''As the boat will 
not hold more than half of our men, it is my counsel that 
lots should be drawn for those to go in the boat, for it shall 
not be according to rank." This, thej all thought was so 
generous an offer, that no one would oppose it. They 
then did so that lots were drawn, and it fell to Biarne to 
go in the boat, and the half of the men with him, for the 
boat had not room for more. But when thej had gotten 
into the boat, an Icelandic man that was in the ship, and 
had come with Biarne from Iceland, said : ' ' Dost thou 
mean, Biarne, to leave me here?" Biarne said: "So it 
seems." Then said the other: " Yery different was the 
promise to my father, when 1 went with thee from Iceland, 
than thus to leave me, for thou said that, we should both 
share the same fate." Biarne said, "It shall not be thus; 
go down into the boat, and I will go up into the ship, 
since I see that thou art so anxious to live." ^ Then Biarne 
went up into the ship, and this man down into the boat, 
and after that they went on their voyage, until they came 

' This was truly in accordance with the noble spirit of the 
great Northmen, who had no feai of death, which to heroes, 
is the shining gate of Valhalla, Biarne joined Karlsefne with 
a ship. Anfe, p. 122, There may be some confusion here so 
far as relates to the statement that the survivors reached Dub- 
lin. Thorhall the Hunter, we are elsewhere told, was driven 
to Ireland, but Biarne was not with him. The first narra- 
tive states distinctly that he remained with Thorfinn Karl- 
sefne, and only two ships are mentioned, his own and 
Biarne's. It appears, however, that there was a third, probably a 
small one, in which Thorhall, the Hunter, went northward around 
Vinland. It may be perfectly true, that two parties from 
Karlsefne's expedition finally brought up in Ireland, as the 
annals of shipwreck furnish multitudes of most curious and 
remarkable incidents which outdo the creations of romance. 
See the recent case of the woman carried alone in a small fish- 
ing vessel from the coast of England in a severe gale, and 
cast upon the coast of Norway, 



140 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

to Dublin, in Ireland, and there told these things; but it 
is most people's belief that Biarne and his companions 
were lost in the worm sea, for nothing was heard of them 
after that time. 



THE ACCOUNT OF THORFINN. 

That same winter [A. D. 1006-7], there was much dis- 
cussion about the affairs of Brattahlid ; and thej set up the 
game of chess, and sought amusement in the reciting of 
history,' and in many other things, and were able to pass 
life joyfully. Karlsefne and Snorre resolved to seek Yin- 
land, but there was much discussion about it. It turned 
out that Karlsefne and Snorre prepared their ships to seek 
Vinland the following summer. [A. D. 1007.] In 
this enterprise Biarne and Thorhall joined as comrades 
with their own ship and crew, who were their followers. 
There was a man named Tliorvald, a relation' of Eric. 
Thorhall was called the Hunter. He long had hunted 
with Eric in summer, and had the care of many things. 
Thorhall was of great stature, large and swarthy face, 
of a hard nature, taciturn, saying little of affairs, and 
nevertheless crafty and malicious, always inclined to evil, 
and opposed in his mind to the Christian religion, from 
its first introduction into Greenland. Thorhall indulged 
in trifling, but nevertheless Eric was used to his familiar- 
ity. He went in the ship with Tliorvald, and was well 
acquainted with uninhabitable places. He used the ship 
in which Thorbiorn came; and Karlsefne engaged com- 
rades for the expedition ; and the best part oi the sailors of 
Greenland were with him. They carried in their ships 
forty and a hundred men. Afterward they sailed to West 
bygd and Biarney-isle. They sailed from Biarney-isle 
with a north wind, and were on the sea a day and night, 
when they found land, and, sending a boat to the shore, 

' Here we have a distinct evidence of the fact that history 
was cultivated in Greenland. 

^ Here, the writer is correct. See ante, p. 1 24, n. 



America by the Northmen. 141 

explored the land, where they found many flat stones of 
such great size, that they exceeded in length the size of two 
men. There were foxes there. They gave the land a 
name, and called it Helluland. After this they sailed 
a night and a day with a north wind. The}' came to a 
land in which were great woods and many animals. 
South-west, opposite the land, lay an island. Here they 
found a bear, and called the island Bear island.' This land, 
where there were woods, they called Markhmd. After 
a voyage of a day and a night, they saw land, and they 
sailed near the land and saw that it was a cape; they kept 
close to the shore Avitli the wind on the starboard side, 
and left the land upon the right side of the ship. There were 
places without harbors, long shores and sands. When 
they went to the shore with a boat, they found the keel of 
a ship, and they called the place, Kiarlarness ;" and they 
gave the shore a name, and called it "Wonder-strand, be- 
cause they were so long going by. Then anothei bay ex- 
tended into the land, and they steered into the bay.^ When 
Leif was with King Olaf Tryggvesson, he sent him to 
establish the Christian religion in Greenland ; then the king 
gave him two Scots-folk, a man named Hake, and a 
woman named Hekia. The king told Leif to take them 
with his men, if he would have his commands done quickly, 

' Disco. 

'See on all these passages, anfe, p. iii. It is rather ab- 
surd to suppose that the Northmen would have stayed three 
years at a point only three days' sail from Greenland, which 
is the time given to the Keel Cape, without communicating 
with home. We must extend the distance. 

' The same bay referred to in the previous account, and 
which lay between Point Gilbert and Isle Nauset. Archer, 
in his account of Gosnold's voyage, says, that when they 
rounded Point Care, the extremity of Isle Nauset, "We bore 
up again with the land, and in the night, came with it anchor- 
ing in eight fathoms, the ground good." Here i1 will be seen 
that the Northmen lay safely foi three days. An/e, p. 125. 



142 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

as they were swifter than beasts. These folk, Leif and 
Eric gave to Ivarlsefne, as followers. When they were 
come opposite Wonder-strand, they put the Scots on the 
shore, and told them to run southward and explore the 
county, and return before the end of three days. They 
were thus clothed, having a garment called a Biafal;^ it 
was made so that a hat was on top, open at the sides, with- 
out arms, buttoned between the legs, and fastened with a 
button and a strap; and the rest was bare. 

They came to anchor and lay by until the three days 
passed, 2 when they returned, one having in his hand a vine, 
and the other, self-sown wheat. Karlsefue said that they 
had found a fruitful land. Afterward they were received 
into the ship, and they went on their waj until a bay in- 
tersected the land. They steered the ship into the bay. 
On the outside was an island,^ and there was a great tide 
around the island. This they called Straumey,* There was 
a great number of birds, and it was scarcely possible to find 
a place for their feet among the eggs. Then they steered 
into a long bay which they called Straumfiord, where they 
landed from their ships and began to prepare habitations.^ 

' In the first account it is called a Kiafal, 

" The Sloop Mary delayed under similar circumstances, 
A?ite, p, 99, note, 

^ The agreement with the first account is substantial. 

* This island may have been the modern Nantucket. See 
ante, p. io8, n. 

" The identification of particular localities may be interest- 
ing, but it is not essential, so long as we are able to show the 
general agreement of a description with some unmistakable 
region. Torfteus found, in the various accounts, a region 
which he expressed by a drawing, showing a large promontory 
extending northward similar to Cape Cod, the general features 
of which, in connection with the coast south and south-west 
are well delineated in all the Saga descriptions of "Vinland, " 
The temperature and productions of the country likewise agree, 
and though the sailing distance in reaching the Keel Cape 
{Kiarlarness) may be too short, we can easily understand how 



America by the Northmen. 143 

They brought with them all kinds oi cattle, and they found 
sufficient pasturage. There were mountains and the pros- 
pect was pleasant; but they cared for nothing except to ex- 
plore the land; there was a great abundance of grass. 
Here they wintered, and the winter was severe, and they 
did not have stores laid up; they began to be in want of 
food and failed to catch lisli. So they sailed over to the 
island,' hoping that they might find means of subsistence 
either on what they could catch or what was cast ashore. 
But they found but little better fare, though the cattle were 
better off. [A. D. 1008.] Afterward they prayed to God 
to send them food, which prayer was not answered as soon 
as desired. Then Tliorhall disappeared and a search was 
made which lasted three days. On the morning of the 
fourth day Karlsefne and Biarne found him lying on the 
top of a rock; there he lay stretched out, with open eyes, 
blowing through his mouth, and muttering to himself. 
They asked him why he had gone there. He replied that 
it did not concern them, and not to wonder, as he was old 
enough to take care of himself without their troublinff 
themselves with his affairs. They asked him to go home 
with them; this he did. After that a whale was cast up 
and they went down to cut it up ; nevertlieless they did not 
know what kind it was. Neither did Karlsefne, though 
acquainted with whales, know this one. Then the cooks 
dressed the whale and they all ate of it, and it made them 
all sick. Then Thorhall said, "It is clear now that the 

that came about, and can add to the time what may be needed ; 
but we cannot modify the general description of the country 
with its great cape, the passage around which is so many 
times described. These general features are distinct and in- 
destructible, and show conclusively that the Northmen in 
their various expeditions were accustomed to sail around Cape 
Cod, finding a rendezvous at the south or south-west not far 
from the heel of the cape. 

^ This incident is not mentioned in the first narrative. We 
repeat that the island may have been Martha's Vineyard. 



144 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

Eed-beard is more prompt to give aid than jour Christ. 
This food is a reward for a hymn which I made to my god, 
Thor, who has seldom deserted me." When they heard 
this none would eat any more, and threw what was left 
from the rock, committing themselves to God. After this 
the opportunity was given of going after fish, and there 
was no lack of food. They sailed into Straumfiord ' and 
had abundance of food and hunting on the mainland, with 
many eggs and fish from the sea. 

Now they began to consider w^here they should settle 
next. Tliorhal] the Hunter wished to go northward around 
Wonder-strand and Kiarlarness to explore Yinland, but 
Karlsefne wished to go south-west, thinking likely that 
there would be larger tracts of country tlie further they 
went south. Thorhall made ready at the island ^ and only 
nine men went with him ; all the rest of the ship folk went 
with Karlsefne. One day Thorhall was carrying water 
to his ship; he drank it and sang this verse: 

" People promised me when hither I 
Caiue, then the best drink 
I should have ; but the country 
I must denounce to all ; 
Here you are forced by hand 
To bear the pail to the water, 
I must bend me down to the spring ; 
Wine did not come to my lips." 

Afterward they left the land and Karlsefne went with 
them to the island. Before they hoisted sail, Thorhall 
sang these verses: 

' Observe that it is not said that they left the "island," 
but that thev went to Straumfiord and hunted on the main- 
land, which is another of the many coincidences agreeing with 
the first narrative which mentions their leaving the island. 
Such unexpected agreements should not be lost with students 
really bent upon knowing the nature of these compositions. 

^ These narratives were originally recited, doubtless in the 
hearing of some of those who had taken part in the ex- 
pedition, — and what island was intended must have been clear 



America by the Nokthmen. 145 

" Let us return 

Home to our countrymen, 

Let the vessel try 

The broad path of the sea ; 

While the peraevering 

Men who praise the land 

Are building ' and boil the whales 

Here on Wonder-strand." 

Thereupon they sailed northward around Wonder-strand 
and Kiarlarness. But when they wished to cruise west- 
ward, a storm came against them, and drove them to 
Ireland, where they were beaten and made slaves. There 
Thorhall passed his life.^ 

Karlsefne, with Snorre and Biarne and the resi; of his 
comrades sailed south. They sailed long until they came 
to a river, which flowed from the land through a lake, 
and passed into the sea. Before the mouth of the river 
were great islands, and they were not able to enter the 
river except at the highest tide.^ Karlsefne sailed into the 
mouth of the river, and called the land Hop. There 
they found fields, where the land was low, with wild corn, 
and where the land was high, were vines. Every river 
was full of fish. They made pits in the sand, where the 
tide rose highest, and at low tide, sacred fish were found 
in these pits, and in the woods was a great number of all 
kinds of beasts. Here they stayed half a month, enjoying 
themselves, but observing nothing new. Earlj one morn- 

to them. These little omissions prove much to a critical mind. 
Ante, p. 112, ?iote. 

' Notice the word building. Karlsefne evidently erected 
some kind of structures as well as Leif, and their enterprise 
seems to excite the ridicule of Thorhall. This version of his 
song varies from the previous (p. 129), which does not mention 
the building. 

^ The first narrative says substantially the same thing, 
namely, that Thorhall died in Ireland. An^e, p. 129. 

^ The first narrative speaks of the shoals. Since that time 
changes have taken place in the physical aspects of the region. 
On the lake. See ante, p. 130, n. i. 
10 



146 Pke-Columbian Discovert of 

ing on looking around, they saw nine skin boats, in which 
were poles that, vibrating toward the sun, gave oul, a sound 
like reeds shaken by the wind. Then Karlsefne said: 
' ' What, think you, does this mean ? ' ' Snorre said : " It 
is possible that it is a sign of peace ; let us raise up a white 
shield and hold it toward them:" this they did. Then they 
rowed toward them, wondering at them, and came to land. 
These men were small of stature and fierce, having a bushy 
head of hair, and very greal eyes and wide cheeks. They 
remained some time wondering at them, and afterward 
rowed southward around the cape.^ They built dwellings 
beyond the lake, others made houses near the mainland, 
and others near the lake. Here they spent the winter. 
]S"o snow fell,^ and all theii cattle fed under the open sky. 
They decided to explore all the mountains ^ that were in Hop ; 
which done, they [A. D. 1009] went and passed the third 
winter in Straum bay. At this time they had much con- 
tention among themselves, and the unmarried women 
vexed the married. The first autumn, Snorre, Karlsefne 's 
son, was born, and he [was three years old] when they went 
away. They had a south wind, and came to Markland, 
and found five Skrgellings, of whom one was a man, and 
two women, and two were boys. Karlsefne took the boys, 
and the others escaped and sank down into the earth. 
They carried the boys away with them, and taught them 
the language and they were baptized. The name of their 
mother was V^atheldi, and their fathei', Uvsege. They said 

^ This narrative wholly omits the battle with the Skrsellings. 
Each writer, as in the Gospel narratives, seems to dwell upon 
the points in which he oi others felt a particular interest. 

' This might have been the case on some remarkable sea- 
son like one well-known season in Iceland. 

^ This range extends to the Blue Hills of Massachusetts, 
which indicates considerable activity in exploration {ante, p. 
137). This Saga says distinctly that they expected to explore 
the land. During the three years spent here Karlsefne must 
have done much. 



America by the I'^okthmen. 147 

that two kings ruled over the Skrsellinger's land ; one was 
named Avalldania, and the other, Valldidia;* that they 
had no houses, but lived in dens and caves. In another 
part of the country, there was a region where the people 
wore white clothes, and shouted loud, and carried poles 
with flags. This they thought to be White-man's land. 

After this they came into Greenland, and passed the 
winter with Leif, son of Eric Red. Biarne Grimolf- 
son was carried out into the Greenland ^ sea, and came into 
a worm sea, which they did nol observe, until their ship 
was full of worm holes. They considered what should 
be done. They had a stern boat, smeared with oil. They 
say that wood covered with oil the worms will not bore. 
The result of the council was, thai as many should go into 
the boat as it would hold. It then appeared thai the boat 
would not hold more than one-half of the men. Then 
Biarne ordered that the men should go into the boat by 
lot, and not according to rank. As it would not hold all, 
they accepted the saying, and when the lots were drawn, 
the men went out of the ship into the boat. The lot was, 
that Biarne should go down from the ship to the boat 
with one -half of the men. Then those to whom the lot fell 
went down from the ship to the boat. When they had 
come into the boat, a young Icelander, who was the com- 
panion of Biarne, said: " Now thus do you intend to leave 
me, Biarne?" Biarne replied, "That now seems neces- 
sary." He replied with these words: " Thou art not true 
to the promise made when I left my father's house in 
Iceland." Biarne replied: "In this thing I do not see 
any other way; " continuing, " Whal course can you sug- 
gest ? " He said, " I see this, that we change places and 
thou come up here and I go down there." Biarne replied: 
"Let it be so, since I see that you are so anxious to live, 
and are frightened by the prospect of death." Then they 
changed places, and he descended into the boat with the 

' See ante, p. 138, n. 2. 

' Also called the Irish Sea, and the sea beiore Vinland. 



148 Pke-Columbian Discovert of 

men, and Biarne went up into the ship. It is related 
that Biarne, and the sailors with him in the ship, perished 
in the worm sea. Those who went in the boat, went on 
their course until they came to land, where they told all 
these things.^ 

After the next summer, Karlsefne went to Iceland with 
his son Snorre, and he went to his own home at Reikianess. 
The daughter of Snorre, son of Karlsefne, was Hallfrida, 
mother to Bishop Thorlak Runolfson. They had a son 
named Thorbiorn, whose daughter was named Thoruna, 
mother of Bishop Biarne. Thorgeii was the name of the 
other son of Snorre, Karlsefue's son, father to Ingveld, 
and mother of the first bishop of Brand. And this is the 
end of the history. 

THIRD NARRATIVE. 

That same summer came a ship from Norway to Green- 
land. The man was called Thortinn Karlsefne who steered 
the ship. He was a son of Thord Horsehead, a son of 
Snorre Thordarson, from Hofda. [Head] Thorfinn Karl- 
sefne was a man of great wealth, and was in Brattahlid 
with Leif Ericson. Soon he fell in love with Gudrid, and 
courted her, and she referred to Leii to answer for her. 
Afterward she was betrothed to him, and their wedding 
was held the same winter. At this time, as before, much 
was spoken about a Vinland voyage; and both Gudrid and 
others persuaded Karlsefne much to that expedition. Now 
this expedition was resolved upon, and they got ready a 
crew of sixty men, and five women ; ^ and then they made 
the agreement, Karlsefne and his people, that each of 
them should have equal share in what they made of gain. 

' The first narrative (an^e, p. 139) says that they reached 
Dublin. We have suggested that this statement was confused 
with the case of Thorhall, who was carried there. The state- 
ment of this narrative hardly allows us to suppose that the sur- 
vivors reached Greenland, as clearly their fate was not known. 

' This account leaves out Biarne and Thorhall, who evidently 
had two ships. A/iU', p. 139, n. 



America by the Northmen. 149 

They had with them all kinds of cattle,^ having the inten- 
tion to settle in the land, if they could. Karlsefne asked 
Leif for his houses in Vinland, but he said he would lend 
them, but not give them. Then tliej put to sea with the 
ship, and came to Leif 's houses ^ safe, and carried up their 
goods. They soon had in hand a great and good prize, 
for a whale had been driven on shore, both large and ex- 
cellent.^ They went to it and cut it up, and had no want 
of food. Their cattle went up into the land ; but soon they 
were unruly, and gave trouble to them. They had one 
bull with them. Karlsefne let wood be felled and hewed 



' These could be easily carried, especially as their cattle 
were small. The early Portuguese expeditions carried their live 
stock with them. See "Prince Henry the Navigator." 

^ The different events are here stated with some rapidity 
and we seem to reach Leif' s booths or huts sooner than neces- 
sary. According to the two previous accounts, they did not 
reach the locality of Leif's booths until the summer after they 
found the whale. These booths, it would appear, were at Mt, 
Hope Bay. This is either the result of confusion in the mind 
of the writer, or else it is founded on the fact that Leif erected 
habitations at 3o^/i places. In the first two accounts of Thor- 
finn Karlsefne's expedition, Leifs booths are not alluded to. 
There may be no real contradiction after all. 

^ The other accounts say that the whale made them sick; 
but that was not because the flesh of the whale was spoiled. 
Beamish, in his translation of the song of Thorhall, indeed 
makes that disagreeable pagan tell his comrades, that, if they 
wish, they 

" Feti'f whales may boil 
Here on Furdustrand 
Far from Fatherland;" 

but there is nothing in the text to throw suspicion upon the 
whale. The trouble was, perhaps, that a sudden overfeeding 
caused nausea, and the whale was thrown away afterward 
in religious disgust. Yet the event is out of its chronological 
order, and properly belongs in the account of the next year, 
and gives only the favorable aspect of the case. 



150 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

for shipping, and had it laid on a rock to dry. They 
had all the good of the products of the land, which were 
these: both grapes and wood, and other products. Aiter 
that first winter, and when summer came [A. D. 1008], 
they were aware of Skraellings being there; and a great 
troop of men came out of the woods. The cattle were 
near to them, and the bull began to bellow and roar very 
loud. With that the Skrgel lings were frightened, and made 
oil with their bundles, — and these were of furs and 
sables and all sorts of skins; and they turned and wanted 
to go into the houses, but Karlsefne defended the doors. 
Neither party understood the language of the other. 
Then the Skraellings took their bundles and opened them, 
and wanted to have weapons in exchange for them, but 
Karlsefne forbade his men to sell weapons. Next he 
adopted this plan with them, that he told the women to 
bear out milk and dairy products to them. When they 
saw these things, they would buy them and nothing else.^ 
Now the trade for the Skraellings was such, that they 
carried away their winnings in their stomachs; and Karl- 
sefne and his comrades got both theii bags and skin goods, 

' The second narrative makes no mention of the barter, 
while the first speaks of the anxiety of the natives to secure 
red cloth {anife, p. 132). But this reference is perfectly consist- 
ent with the first, the red cloth being exhausted, as appears 
from the statement. Then, naturally, though it is not men- 
tioned in the first account, the Northmen resorted to their 
dairy products, which the natives, having no cattle, and not 
knowing of such things, received with avidity. One writer was 
thus more interested in the dairy, while the other was struck 
by what had been told him respecting barter in red cloth. 
Thus, wherever we turn in the Sagas, we find the statements 
agreeing with one another at unexpected points, and supple- 
menting one another, showing that there was a full and true 
story of which each, with some slight differences, gave a ver- 
sion. We repeat again, that this is the line on which the Sagas 
should be studied. This internal evidence has been too much 
neglected. 



America by the Northmen. 151 

and so they went away. Next it is to be told that Karl- 
sefne let a good strong fence be made around the habita- 
tion, and strengthened it for defense.^ At this time 
Gudrid,^ Karlsefne's wife, lay in of male child, and the 
child was called Snorre. In the beginning of the next 
winter came the Skreellings again to them, and in much 
greater numbers than before, and with the same kind of 
wares. Then said Karlsefne to the women, '' Now ye 
shall carry out the same kind of food as was best liked the 
last time, and nothing else. Then they saw that they 
threw their bundles in over the fence, while Gudrid sat 
in the door within, by the cradle of Snorre, her son. 
There came a shadow to the door, and a. woman went in 
with a black kirtle on, rather short, with a snood around 
her head; clear, yellow hair; pale, with large eyes, so large 
that none ever saw such eyes in a human head. She went 
to where Gudrid was sitting, and said: " What art thou 
called ? " "I am called Gudrid ; and what art thou called ? " 
" I am called Gudrid," said she. Then the goodwife, 
Gudrid, put out her hand to her, that she might sit down 
beside her. At the same time Gudrid heard a great noise, 
and the woman had vanished.^ At the same time one of 
the Skraellings was killed by one of Karlsefne's housemen, 
because he was about to take one oi their weapons ; and they 
made off as soon as possible, leaving behind them goods 
and clothes. No one had seen this woman but Gudrid. 

^ Possibly all evidences of this defense may have disappeared, 
yet is it not improbable that such remains may yet be discovered 
on Mount Hope Bay or in regions on the Massachusetts and 
Maine coasts. Possibly camps of the Northmen were util- 
ized by the Indians. See Prof. Horsford on * ' The Fort of 
Norombega. ' ' 

" This event belongs to the previous year. These facts are 
not given in the other accounts, the writer appearing to have 
different information. 

^ This is another somewhat marvelous occurrence, similar to 
those with which Cotton Mathei and others were accustomed 
to embellish New England history. It does not explain itself. 



152 Fre-Columeian Discovery of 

*' Now," says Karlsefne, " we- must be cantious, and take 
counsel; for I think they will come the third tmie with 
hostility and many people. We shall now take the plan, 
that ten men go out to the ness and show themselves there, 
and the rest of our men shall go into the woods and make 
a clearance for our cattle against the time the enemy comes 
out of the forest; and we shall take the bull before us, and 
let him go in front." So it happened, that at tlie place 
where they were to meet, there wa? a lake on the one side, 
and the forest on the other. The plan which Karlsefne 
had laid down was adopted. The Skrajllings came to the 
place where Karlsefne proposed to fight; and there was a 
battle there, and many of the SkrseUings fell. There was 
one stout, handsome man among the Skraelling people, 
and Karlsefne thought that he must be their chief. One 
of the Skraelhngs had taken np an axe and looked at it 
a while, and wielded it against one ol his comrades and cut 
him down, so that he fell dead instantly. Then the stoat 
man took the axe,' looked at it a while, and threw it into 
the sea as far as he could. They then fled to the woods 
as fast as possible, and so ended the fight. Karlsefne 
stayed there with his men the whole winter; but toward 
spring he made known that he would not stay there 
any longer, and would return to Greenland.^ Xow they 
prepared for their voyage and took much goods from thence 

' For the previous versions of this affaii of the axe, see p. 
134. This last account appears a little plainer, but is in agree- 
ment with the first narrative, and also shows that Karlsefne had 
a plan of campaign. 

" It is true that he decided to leave the country, but he did 
not carry out his intention until the following year, 10 10. 
This narrative skips over all the events of the third year. It 
is nevertheless given, in order that the reader may have the 
fullest possible knowledge of any shortcomings that may exist 
in the manuscripts. This is done with the more conf.dence, 
for the reason that there is no doubt but that all the narra- 
tives contain a broad substratum of solid historical facts which 
there should be no difficulty in interpreting. 



Amekica by the Northmen. 153 

— vines, grapes and skin wares. They put to sea, and tlieir 
ship came to Ericsliord, and they there passed the winter. 

The following summer* [A. D. 1011], Karlsefne went 
to Iceland and Gudrid with him, and he went home to 
Reikianess. His mother felt that he had made a poor 
match, and for this reason Gudrid was not at home the 
first winter. But when she saw that Gudrid was a noble 
woman, she went home, and they got on well together. 
Halfrid was the daughter of Suorre Karlsefneson, mother 
to Bishop Thorlak Runolfson. Their son was named 
Thorbiorn, and his daughter, Thoruna, mothei to Bishop 
Biorne. Thorgeir was the son of Snorre Karlsefneson, 
father to Ingveld, mother of the first Bishop Brand. 
Snorre Karlsefneson had a daughter, Steinun, who married 
Einar, son of Grundarketil, son of Thorvald Krok, the 
son of Thorer, of Espihol; their son was Thorstein Raug- 
latr. He was father to Gudrun, who married Jorund of 
Keldum. Halla was their daughter, and she was mother 
to Flose, father of Yalgerda, who was mother of Herr 
Erland Sterka, father of Herr Hauk, the Lagman." An- 
other daughter of Flose was Thordis, mother of Fru In- 
gigerd the Rich; her daughter was Fru Hallbera, Abbess 
of Stad, in Reikianess. Many other distinguished men 
in Iceland are the descendants of Karlsefne and Thurid,^ 
who are not here mentioned. God be with us. Amen.* 



* From the statement at the end of the voyage of Freydis 
(see p. 158), we learn that the summer in which he returned 
from Iceland, Karlsefne went to Norway, and from thence the 
following spring to Iceland. This does not conflict with the 
statement in the above narrative, though at first it may appear 
to. It does not say that he went the following summer from 
Greenland to Iceland, but that on that summer, he went to 
Iceland, which is perfectly true, tlio-igh poorly stated, and his 
previous voyage to Norway being ignored. 

' Ante, p. 121. 

' Rafn says that " Thurid '' was another name for Gudrid. 
Ante, p. 128, n. 2. 

* In view of the facts of the case, the notion that any one 



154 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 



VIII. THE VOYAGE OF FKEYDIS, HELGE, AND 
FmBOGE. 

This narrative is found in Antiquitates Americance, 
p, 65. It shows that histor}^, among tlie Icelanders, was 
not made subservient to family interests, and the truth 
was told without respect to persons. At the conclusion we 
have a (supplementary) notice of Thortinn and Gudrid, 
after their retui'n to Iceland. 



Now the conversation again began to turn upon a Vin- 
land voyage, as the expedition was both gainful and honor- 
able. The same summer [A. D. lOlOJ that Karlsefne 
returned from Vinland, a ship arrived in Greenland from 
Norway. Two brothers commanded the ship, Helge and 
Finboge; and they remained that winter in Greenland. 
The brothers were of Icelandic descent, from Earlfiord. 
It is now to be told that Freydis, Eric's daughter, came 
home from Gardar,^ and went to the abode of Finboge 

of these Icelandic characters is to be viewed as " mythical," 
or in the category with that of "Agamemnon," appears simply 
preposterous. The history of the times proves that they are, 
in the truest sense, historical characters. No genealogies, 
apart from the Hebrew records, are better known than those 
of prominent Icelandic families. There can be no reasonable 
doubt cast upon the record which attests the family line of 
Gudrid, the foundation of which was begun in New England, 
furnishing an important part of the Episcopal succession in 
Iceland. The attempt to question the record suggests, in a 
feeble way, the method used to prove that no such person 
as Napoleon Bonaparte ever existed. They are the work of 
people who were in close touch with England and the Conti- 
nent. In religion, they were under the supervision of the Roman 
Pontiffs, who were familiar with their history and general con- 
dition. Sagas and the Papal letters were synchronous. 

* Gardar, it should be remembered, was the Episcopal seat 



America by the Northmen. 155 

and Ilelge, and proposed to them that they sliould go to 
Yinland with their vessel, and have half with her of all 
the goods they could get there. They agreed to this. 
Then she went to the abode of her brothei Leif, and asked 
him to give her the honses he had built, in Vinland. He 
answered as before, that he would lend, but not give, 
the houses." It was agreed upon between the brothers and 
Freydis, that each should have thirty fighting men, be- 
sides women. But Freydis broke this and had five men 
more, and concealed them. The brothers knew nothing 
of it until they arrived in Yinland.^ They went to sea, 
and had agreed beforehand to sail in company, if they 
could do so. The difference was little, although the 
brothers came a little earlier, and had carried up their bag- 
gage to Leif's houses. When Freydis came to the land, 
her people cleared the ship, and carried her baggage also 
up to the house. Then said Freydis: "Why are you 
carrying your things in here ? " " Because we thought, ' ' 
said they, ' ' that the whole of the agreement with us should 
be held." She said, "Leif lent the houses to me, not to 
you. ' ' Then said Helge, ' ' In evil, we brothers cannot 
strive with thee:" and bore out their luggage and made 
a shed, and built it farther from the sea, on the borders of 
a lake,^ and set all about it in order. Freydis had trees 
cut down for her ship's cargo. Now winter set in, and 

of Greenland. Freydis and her husband went to Vinland 
with Karlsefne. It was she who intimidated the Skreeliings. 

' It would seem from this that the buildmgs were of a dur- 
able character. 

' It appears that the route to Vinland had become so well 
known, that the Saga writers no longer thought it necessary to 
describe it. 

' Mount Hope Bay often appears like a lake. Brereton, in 
his account of Gosnold's voyage, calls these same bays, lakes. 
He writes: "From this [Elizabeth] island, we went right over 
to the mayne, where we stood a wile as ravished at the beautie 
and dilicacy of the sweetnesse, besides divers cleare lakes, 
whereof we saw no end.'' 



156 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

the brothers proposed to have some games for amusement 
to pass the time. So it was done for a time, till discord 
came among them, and the games were given up, and none 
went from one house to the other; and things went on so 
during a great part of the winter. It happened one morn- 
ing that Frejdis got out of her berth, and put on her 
clothes, but not her shoes; and the weather was such that 
much dew had fallen. She took the cloak ol hei husband 
over her, and went out, and went to the liouse ol the 
brothers, and to the door. A inan had gone out a little before 
and left the door behind him half shut. She opened the door, 
and stood in the doorway a little, and was silent. Fin- 
boge lay the farthest inside the hut, and was awake. He 
said: " What wilt thou have here, Freydis ? " She said, 
" I want thee to get up and go out with me, for 1 would 
speak with thee." He did so; they went to a tree that wa 
lying under the eaves of the hut and sat down. " How 
dost thou like this place ? " said she. He said, '' The coun- 
try, methinks, is good, but I do not like this quarrel that 
has arisen among us, for I. think there is no cause for it," 
'' Thou art right," says she, " and I think so, too, and it 
is my errand to thy dwelling that I want to buy the ship 
of you brothers as your ship is larger than mine and I 
would break up from hence." " I will lei it be so," said 
he, "if that will please thee." Now they parted so and 
she went home, and Finboge to his bed. She went up 
into her berth and with her cold feet awakened Thorvard, 
who asked why she was so cold and wet. She answered with 
great warmth, " I went to these brothers," said she, " to 
treat about their ship, for I want a larger ship,^ and they 
took it so ill that they struck and abused me. And thou, 
useless man ! will neither avenge my affront nor thy own. 
Now must I feel that I am away from Greenland, but 
I will separate^ from thee if thou dost not avenge this." 

* Freydis was evidently the principal in most things. 
" By Icelandic pagan law a woman could separate from her 
husband for a slight cause. 



America by the IsTorthmen. 157 

Then he could not bear her reproaches and told his men 
to rise as fast as possible and take their weapons. They 
did so and went to the huts of the brothers and went in 
as they lay asleep and seized them all, bound them, and 
led them out bound, one after the other, and Freydis had 
each of them put to death as he came out. Now all the 
men were killed, but the women were left and nobody 
would kill them. Then said Freydis, " Give me an axe 
in my hand." This was done, and she turned on those 
five women and did not give ovei imtil thej were all dead. 
Now they returned to their own hut after this evil deed, 
and the people could onl}' observe that Freydis thought 
she had done exceedingly well, and she said to her com- 
rades, "If it be our lot to return to Greenland I shall take 
the life of tlie man who speaks of this affair, and we shall 
say that we left them here as we went away." Now they 
got ready the ship early in the spring [A. D. 1011], which 
had belonged to the brothers, with all the goods they could 
get on that the ship would carry, sailed out to sea, and 
had a good voyage, and the ship came early in the summer 
to Ericsfiord. Karlsefne was there still * and had his ship 
ready for sea, but waited a wind; and it was a common 
saying that never a richer ship sailed from Greenland than 
that which he steered. 

Freydis went home now to her house which had stood 
"without damage in the meanwhile. She bestowed many 
gifts on her followers that they might conceal her wick- 
edness, and she remained now on her farm. All were not 
so silent about their misdeeds and wickedness that some- 
thing did not come up about it. This came at last to the 
ears of Leif, her brother, and he thought this report w^as 
very bad. Leif took three men oi Freydis's followers and 
tortured them to speak, and they acknowledged the whole 
affair and their tales agreed together. " I do not care," 

' According to this statement, the expedition returned very 
early, since Karlsefne went to Norway the same season, as pre- 
viously told. 



158 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

says Leif, "to treat my sister as sbe deserves; but this I 
will foretell them that their posterity will never thrive." 
So it went that nobody thought any thing of them save 
evil, from that time.' Now we have to say that Karlsefne 
got ready his ship and sailed out to sea.' He came on well, 
reached Norway safely, and remained there all winter and 
sold his wares. He and his wife were held in esteem by 
the best people in Norway. In the following spring, 
he fitted out his ship for Iceland, and when he was quite 
ready, and his ship lay outside the pier waiting a wind, 
there came to him a south- country man, from Bremen, 
in Saxon land, who would deal with him for his house- 
bar.^ " I will not sell it," said he. " I will give thee half 
a mark of gold for it," said the south-country man. Karl- 
sefne thought it was a good offer, and sold it accordingly. 
The south-country man went away with his house-bar, 
and Karlsefne did not know what wood it was. It was 
massur-wood * from Yinland. Now Karlsefne put to sea 
[A. D. 1012], and his ship came to land north of Skaga- 
fiord,^ and there he put up his vessel for winter. In spring 
he purchased Glambneirland,* where he took up his abode, 

^ If this transaction had occurred during the previous cen- 
tury, when paganism universally prevailed, the atrocious act 
of the cold-blooded Freydis would have been the prelude to 
almost endless strife. The teachings of the Church were slowly 
telling upon the people. 

^ This account is supplementary to the foregoing and is 
taken from the same work. Karlsefne, of course, sailed from 
Greenland. 

^ Husasnotru has been translated "house-besom." The 
exact meaning is not known. A besom-shaft would be too 
small, however rare the wood, to be made into any thing of 
great value. The bar for securing the house door was as com- 
mon as necessary in every house, and this, perhaps, is what is 
referred to. 

* See note, p. io6. 

' In the north of Iceland. 

• Not far from Skagafiord, in Iceland. 



Amekica by the Northmen. 159 

and dwelt there as long as he lived, and was a man of great 
consideration. Manj men are descended from him and 
his wife Gudrid, and it was a good family. When Karl- 
sefne died, Gudrid took the management of his estates, 
and of Snorre, her son, who was born in Vinland. When 
Snorre was married, Gudrid went out of the country, and 
went to the south,^ and came back again to Snorre's estate, 
and he had built a church at Glambse. Afterward Gudrid 
became a nun, and lived a hermit's life, and did so as long 
as she lived. ^ Snorre had a son called Thorgeir, who was 

^ It is understood that she went to Rome. It may be asked 
why she did not spread the news ol hei son's voyage in those 
parts of Europe whither she went, and make known the dis- 
covery of the New World. To this it may again be repHed, 
that the Icelanders had no idea that they had found a New 
World, and did not appreciate the value of their geographical 
knowledge. Besides, there is nothing to prove that Gudrid, and 
others who went to Europe at this period, did not make known 
the Icelandic discoveries. There is every reason for believing 
that she did, and besides, moreover, that being a devout 
Catholic she called attention to the condition of the people in 
Greenland, where she found a priest on going to that country, 
the priest introduced by the Christian Leif, and who clearly 
did not lack a successor down to the time of the introduction 
of the Episcopate in Greenland. Gudrid no doubt created what 
may be called a sensation by her accounts of the world at the 
West, and probably received authorization from the Pope to 
undertake the religious life and work in Iceland. 

' It will be remembered that all this was foretold by her for- 
mer husband, Thorstein Ericson, when life was revived in 
the house of Thorstein Black, in Greenland; from which we 
must infer that the voyage of Thorstein Ericson was composed 
after, or during, the second widowhood of Gudrid, and that 
circumstance, connected with Thorstein' s prophecy, were in 
accordance with the spirit of the age, imagined in order to 
meet the circumstances of the case (see p. ii8). That is to 
say: Thorstein knew all about his wife's deep religious feeling 
and of her favorable opinion of conventual life, and, in his 



160 Pbk-Columbian Discovery of 

father to Bishop Brand's mother, Ingveld. The daughter 
of Snorre Karlsefueson was called Ilalfrid. She was 
mother of Ruiiolf, the father of Bishop Thorlak. Karl- 
sefne and Gudrid ^ also had a son called Biorn. He was 
father of Thoruna, the mother of Bishop Biorn. Many 
people are descended from Karlsefne, and his kin have 
been lucky; and Karlsefne has given the most particular 
accounts of all these travels, of which something is here 
related. 

last hours, spoke of the probabilities of the case, as many 
have done before, while some circumstances connected with 
his prophecy were magnified. The entire matter bears the 
stamp of the age, and is undoubtedly true, showing the power 
of Christianity among a remote people in a distant age. 

' The relations existing between Leif Ericson and Gudrid were 
fortuitous. It is said (p. 123) that Leif had the bestowal of 
of her hand, and again (p. 148), that Gudrid referred Karlsefne 
to Leif, yet Gudrid and Leif were not connected by family ties. 
What is the explanation ? How did Leif acquire this influence ? 
The answer is found in the fact that he saved Gudrid' s life in 
the shipwreck and earned her gratitude. These undesigned 
statements prove conclusively the solid historical character of the 
narrative and show that the Sagas can stand the strictest internal 
criticism. Ante, p. 148. Karlsefne is called son of Thord 
" Horsehead. The Icelandic is Hesthofde. The father was called 
Thord, of Horsehead, a place so called from its resemblance to 
the head of a horse. 



MINOR NARRATIVES. 



I. ARE M ARSON IN HVITRAM ANNA-LAND. 

This narrative is from the Landiiama-hok, No. 107. 
Folio; collated with Hauksbok, Melabok. and other manu- 
scripts, in the Arnce-Magncen Collection. 

It has frequently been observed that the Landnama-hok 
is of the highest historical authority. It proves the fact, 
that Rafn, the Limerick merchant, conveyed the narrative 
relating to Marson, to Iceland from Ireland, wiiere the 
circumstances of his voyage were well known. The 
Laiidnama-bok, while it gives a tacit approval of the state- 
ments of the narrative, does not enter upon the question 
of the locality of the place to which Are Marson went. 
Therefore, while we accept the narrative as genuine, we may 
exercise caution in determinitig the locality of Hvitra- 
manna-land. Nothing is to be gained by making any 
forced deductions from the narrative; especially as the 
pre-Columbian discovery oi America is abundantly proven. 

It is perfectly clear that there was a country somewhere 
on the Atlantic coast of North America, known as White- 
man's Land, or Ireland the Great. It is equally clear, 
from Icelandic testimony, from the Bull of Pope Gregory 
IV. 835, from the Letter of Pope Nicholas V., 14-i8, and 
Christophessen {ante, p. ), that Europeans were in 
Greenland prior to Eric the Red, 985. Nor can there be 
a reasonable doubt that the Irish were in America prior to 
Eric. There is probably a truth behind the story of St. 
Brenden, told in so many ancient manuscripts. One day 
additional light will be thrown upon the story of Are 
Marson, and a better understanding must, erelong, be 
reached respecting the early social and commercial relations 
that existed between Ireland and Iceland. 

[162J 



America by the Northmen, 163 

Ulf the Squinter, son of Hogni the "White, took the 
whole of Reikianess between Thorkrafiord and Hafrafell;^ 
he married Biorg, daughter of Eyvind the Eastuian,^ sis- 
ter to Helge the Lean. They liad a son named Atli the 
Red, who married Thorbiorg, sister oi Steinolf the Hum- 
ble. Their son was named Mar oi Holum, who married 
Thorkatla, daughter of Ilergil Neprass. She had a son 
named Are, who [A. D. 928], wa.^ driven by a storm to 
White-man's land,^ which some call Ireland the Great, 



' In Iceland the care bestowed upon genealogies is well 
illustrated by the pains here taken to give the line of Marson. 
It must be remembered again that Landnama-bok corresponds 
with the Enghsh Doomsday Book, being devoted to a matter- 
of-fact account of the people and theii lands in Iceland. 

' That is, the Dane. 

' Hvitraj7ianna-land. It will be remembered that in the 
Saga of Thorfinn Karlsefne (p. 13S), this land was referred 
to by the Skraelling boys whom he took prisoners and brought 
up. They described it as a land inhabited by a people who 
wore white clothes, carried poles before them, and shouted. 
Yet the Saga writer there says no more than thnt the people think 
that this was the place known as Ireland the Oreat. What the 
Skrgellings say does not identify it with the land of Are Marson; 
yet, in order to allow Professor Rafn, who held that this coun- 
try was Florida, the full benefit of his theory, we give the 
following extract from Wafer's voyage, which shows that, 
in the year 1681, when he visited the Isthmus of Darien, 
there were people among the natives who answered toler- 
ably well to the description given in Karlsefne 's narrative. 
Wafer says: " They are white, and there are them of both sexes; 
yet there were few of them in comparison of the copper 
colored, possibly but one to two or three hundred. They 
differ from the other Indians, chiefly in respect of color, 
though not in that only. Their skins are not of such a white, 
as those of fair people among Europeans, with some tincture 
of a blush or sanguine complexion; neither is their complexion 
like that of our paler people, but 'tis rather a milk-white, 
lighter than the color of any Europeans, and much like that 
11 



164 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

which lies in the Western ocean opposite Yinland, six ' 
days' sail west of Ireland. Are was not allowed to go 

of a white horse. . . . Their bodies are beset all over, more or 
less, with a fine, short, milk-white down. . . .The men would 
probably have white bristles for beards, did they not prevent 
them by their custom of plucking the young beard up by the 
roots. . . .Their eyebrows are milk-white also, and so is the 
hair of their heads," p. 107. He also adds, that "The men 
have a value for Cloaths, and if any of them had an old shirt 
given him by any of us, he would be sure to weai it, and strut 
about at no ordinary rate. Besides this, they have a sort of 
long cotton garments of theii own, some white, and others of 
a rusty black, shaped like our carter's frocks, hanging down 
to their heels, with a fringe of the same of cotton, about a 
span long, and short, wide, open sleeves, reaching but to the 
middle of their arms. . . .They are worn on some great oc- 
casions. . . . When they are assembled, they will sometimes walk 
about the place or plantation where they are, with these their 
robes on. And once I saw Tacenta thus walking with two or 
three hundred of these attending him, as if he was mustering 
them. And I took notice that those in the black gowns walked 
before him, and the white after him, each having their lances 
of the same color with their lobes." These resemblances are 
at least curious, but historians will ask for more solid proof 
of the identity of the two people. 

^ Professor Rafn, in what seems to the author, his needless 
anxiety to fix the exact locality of the White-man's land, 
says that, as this part of the manuscript is difficult to de- 
cipher, the original letters may have gotten changed, and vi 
inserted instead of xx or xi, which numerals would afford time 
for the voyager to reach the coast of America, in the vicinity 
of Florida. Smith, in his Dialogues, has suppressed the term 
six altogether, and substituted "by a number of days' sail 
unknown." This at least is trifling with the subject. In 
Gronland'' s Historiske Mitidesmoerker ^ chiefly the work of 
Finn Magnussen, no question is raised on this point. The 
various versions all give the numbei six, which limits the voyage 
to the vicinity of the Azores. Schoning, to whom we are 



America by the Nokthmen. 165 

away, and was baptized ' there. This was first told by 
Rafn, the Limerick trader, who lived for a long time in 
Ireland. So also Thorkel, son ol Geller, tells that certain 

so largely indebted for the best edition of Heimskringla, lays 
the scene of Marson's adventure at those islands, and suggests 
that they may at thai time have covered a largei extent of terri- 
tory than the present, and that they may have suffered from 
earthquakes and floods, adding "It is likely, and all circum- 
stances show, that the said land has been a piece of North 
America." This is a bold, yet not very reasonable hypoth- 
esis, though the volcanic character of the islands is well 
known. In 1808, a volcanic mountain rose to the height 
of 3,500 feet. Yet Schoning's suggestion is not needed. 
The fact that the islands were not inhabited when discovered 
by the Portuguese does not, however, settle any thing against 
Schoning, because, in the course of five hundred years, the 
people might either have migrated, or been swept away by 
pestilence. Gronland'' s Histoi-iske Mindestnoo-kei' (vol. I, p. 
150) says simply, that "It is thought that he (Are Marson) 
ended his days in America, or at all events in one ol the larger 
islands of the west. Some think that it was one of the Azore 
islands. ' ' Upon the whole, we ourselves believe to the contrary. 
The proper method seems to be that of Rafn, who would 
correct the text. 

' The fact that Are Marson is said to have been baptized in 
Ireland the Great does not prove that the place, wherever 
located, was inhabited by a colony of Irish Christians. Yet 
this view was urged by Professor Rafn and others, who held 
that Great Ireland was situated in Florida. A Shawanese 
tradition is given to prove that Florida was early settled by 
white men from over the sea. We read that in 1818, "the 
Shawanese were estabhshed in Ohio, whither they came from 
Florida. Black Hoof, then eighty-five years old, was born 
there, and remembered bathing in the sea. He told the 
Indian Agent, that the people of his tribe had a tradition, that 
their ancestors came over the sea, and that for a long time 
they kept a yearly sacrifice for their safe arrival." — Archcuo- 
logia Americana, vol. I, p. 273. Yet these Indians, the sup- 



166 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

Icelanders said, who heard Thorfinn, Earl oi the Orkneys, 
say, that Are had been seen and known in White-man's 
land, and that, though not allowed to leave, he was held 
in much honor. Are had a wife named Thorgeir, daugh- 
ter of Alf of Dolum. Theii sons were Thorgils, Gudleif 
and Illuge, which is the family of Reikianess. Jorund 
was the son of Ulf the Squinter. He married Thorbiorg 
Knarrabringa. They had a daughter, Thorhild, whom 
Eric the Red married. They had a son, Leif the Fortu- 
nate of Greenland. Jorund was the name of the son of 
Atli the Red; he married Thordis, daughter of Thorgeir 
Suda; their daughter was Thorkatla, who married Thor- 
gils Kollson. Jorund was also the father of Snorre.^ 



II. BioRN asbrandso:n". 

This narrative is taken from Eyrbyggia Saga, which 
contains the early history of that part of Iceland lying 
around Snasfells, on the west coast. The Saga is not of 
a later date than the thirteenth century. Il is given here, 
not because it applies largely to the main question under 

posed descendants of eminently pious Christians from Ireland, 
were not inclined to Christianity, and had no Christian 
traditions. It is more reasonable, to allow that six, should 
mean eleven or twenty days' sail, notwithstanding there is 
difficulty in finding the white men for the land in question. 
It will be found by the study of the subject of complexion in 
historical narratives that the terms "white," "black," and 
"red" are used comparatively. See Verrazano the Explorer, 
p. 27. 

' It will appear from this genealogical account, that Are 
Marson was no obscure or mythological character. In 981 
he was one of the principal men of Iceland, and is highly 
spoken of. Yet his connection with Ireland the Great was 
undoubtedly real. This view will repay investigation. The 
other characters mentioned aie equally well known. See Anti- 
^m fates AniericancB, pp. 2 1 1 - 1 2 . 



America by the Northmen'. 167 

consideration, the pre-Columbian discovery of America, 
but rather, because it will make the reader fully ac- 
quainted with the hero, who afterward appears. 



Bork the Fat, and Thordis, daughter of Sur, had a 
daughter named Thurid, who married Thorbiorn the Fat, 
living on the estate of Froda. He was a son of Orne 
the Lean, who held and tilled the farm of Froda. Thor- 
biorn had before been n^arried to Thurid, daughter of 
Asbrand, of Kamb, in Breidavik, and sister of Biorne 
Breidaviking the Athlete, soon to be nicntioned in this 
Saga, and of Arnbiorn the Handy. The sons of Thorbiorn 
and Thurid were Ketil the Chanipion, Gunnlaug and 
Hallstein 

Now this n.ust be related of Snorre the Priest,' that he 
undertook the suit for the slaying of Thorbiorn, his kins- 
n^an. He also caused his sister to remove to his own 
home, at Helgefell, because it was told that Biorn Asbrand, 
of Kamb, had come to pay her improper attention. 

There was a man named Thorodd, of Medalfells Strand, 
an upright man and a good merchant. He owned a trading 
vessel in which he sailed to distant lands. Thorodd had 
sailed to the west,' to Dublin, on a trading voyage. At 
that time, Sigurd ' Hlodverson, Earl oi the Orkneys, had 
made an expedition toward the west, to the Hebrides and 

' Priest or Gode. This was the heathen priest of Iceland, 
whose duty was to provide the temple offerings, for which pur- 
pose a contribution was made by every farm in the vicinity. 
This office was also united with that of chiei judge and advo- 
cate, and for the cases conducted by him at the Thing he re- 
ceived the customary fees; yet he was obliged to depend for 
his support, mainly, upon the products of his farm. The 
office was hereditary, but could be sold, assigned, or forfeited, 
though men of character and ability, could, independently 
of such means, establish themselves in the priesthood. 

2 Ireland was regarded west in respect to Scandinavia. 

3 Killed in Ireland in a battle, 1013. 



168 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

the Man, and had laid a tribute upon the habitable part of 
Man,^ Having- settled the peace, he left men to collect the 
tribute; the earl himself returned to the Orkneys. Those 
who were left to collect the tribute, got all ready and set 
sail with a south-west wind. But after they had sailed 
some time, to the south-east and east, a great storm arose, 
which drove them to the northward as far as Ireland, and 
their vessel was cast away on a barren, uninhabited island. 
Just as they reached the island, Thorodd the Icelander 
came sailing by from Dublin. The shipwrecked men 
begged for aid. Thorodd put out a boat and went to them 
himself. When he reached them, the agents of Sigurd 
promised him money if he would carry them to their home 
in the Orkneys. When he told them that he could by 
no means do so, as he had made all ready to go back to 
Iceland, they begged the harder, believing that neither 
their money nor their liberty would be safe in Ireland or 
the Hebrides, whither they had just before been with a 
hostile army. At length Thorodd came to this, that he 
would sell them his ship's long-boat for a large sum of 
the tribute money; in this they reached the Orkneys, 
and Thorodd sailed to Iceland without a boat. Having 
reached the southern shores of the island, he laid hie course 
along the coast to the westward, and entered Breidafiord, 
and came to the harbor at Dogurdarness. The same 
autumn he went to Helgefell to spend the winter with 
Snorre the Priest, and from that time he was called Tho- 
rodd the Tribute Taker. This took place just after the 
murder of Thorbiorn the Fat. During the same winter 
Thurid, tlie sister of Snorre the Priest, who had been the 
wife of Thorbiorn the Fat, was at Helgefell. Thorodd 
mad 3 proposals of marriage to Snorre the Priest, with re- 
spect to Thurid. Being rich and known by Snorre to be 
of good repute and that he would be useful in supporting 
his administration of affairs, he consented. Therefore 

' Probably the present "Isle of Man," which still retains 
" Manx " law. 



America by the Northmen. 169 

their marriage was celebrated during this winter at Snorre's 
house, at Plelgefell. In the following spring Thorodd 
set himself up at Froda and was thought an ui^right man. 
But when Thurid went to Froda, Biorn Asbrandson 
often paid her visits, and it was commonly reported that 
he had corrupted her chastity. Thorodd vainly tried to 
put an end to these visits. At that time Thorodd Wooden 
Clog lived at Arnahval. His sons, Ord and Val were 
men grown and youths oi the greatest promise. The men 
blamed Thorodd for allowing himself to be insulted so 
greatly by Biorn, and offered him their aid, il desired, to 
end his coming. It chanced one time when Biorn came 
to Froda, that he sat with Thurid talking. It was Thorodd's 
custom when Biorn was there to sit in the house. But 
he was now nowhere to be seen. Then Thurid said, "Take 
care, Biorn, for I fear Thorodd means to put a stop to 
your visits here; I think he has secured the road and 
means to attack you and overjjower you with unequal 
numbers." Biorn replied, "That is possible," and then 
sang these verses: 

O Goddess ' whom bracelet adorns, 

This day (I linger 

In my beloved's arms) 

Stay longest in the heavens, 

As we both must wish ; 

For I this night am drawn 

To drink myself the parentals ' 

Of my oft-departing joys. 

Having done this Biorn, took his weapons and went to 
return home. As he went up the hill Digramula five men 
jmnped out upon him from their hiding place. These 
were Thorodd and two of his men, and the sons of Thoror 
Wooden Clog. They attacked Biorn, but he defended 
himself bravely and well. The sons of Thoror pressed 
him sharply, but he slew them both. Thorodd then 

' Literally, woman, with reference to Jord, the Earth, one 
of the wives of Odin, and ailso mothei of Thor. 
^ Funeral cups. 



170 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

fled with his men, though he himself had only a slight 
wound, and the others not any. Biorn went on until he 
reached home and entered the house. The lady of the 
house- ordered a maid to place food before him. When 
the maid came into the room with the light and saw Biorn 
wounded, she went and told Asbrand, his father, that 
Biorn had returned covered with blood. Asbrand came 
into the room and inquired what was the cause of his 
wounds. He said, " Have you and Thorodd had a fight ? " 
Biorn replied that it was so. Asbrand asked how the 
affair had ended. Biorn replied with these verses: 

Not so easy against a brave man 

It is to fight ; 

(Wooden Clog's two sons 

Now I have slain). 

As for the ship's commander, 

A woman to embrace, 

Or for the cowardly, 

A golden tribute to buy.' 

Asbrand bound up his son's wounds, and his strength 
was soon restored. Thorodd went to Snorre the Priest, 
to talk with him about setting a suit on foot against Biorn, 
on account of the killing of Thoror's sons. This suit was 
held in the court of Thornesthing. It was settled that 
Asbrand, who became surety for his son. should paj the 
usual fines. Biorn was exiled for three years ^ and went 
abroad the same summer. During that summer, a son 
was born to Thurid who was called Kiarten. He grew 
up at home in Froda, and early gave great hope and 
promise. 

When Biorn crossed the sea he came into Denmark, 
and went thence to Jomsberg. At that lime Palnatoki 
was captain of the Jomsberg * Vikings. Biorn was ad- 

' Biorn's mother. 

' This is a fling at Thorodd the Tribute Taker. 

^ This shows, that while Biorn killed the men in self-defense, 
it was the opinion of the court that he did not get what he 
deserved. 

* Jomsberg was the headquarters of an ordei of vikings or 



America by the Northmen. 171 

mitted into the crew and won the name of the Athlete. 
He was at Jomsberg when Styrbiorn the Hardj assaulted 
it. He went into Sweden, when the Jomsberg Yikings 
aided Styrbiorn;' he was in the battle of Tynsvall, in which 

pirates, where a castle was also built by King Harold Blaat- 
and of Denmark. It was situated on one of the outlets of the 
Oder, on the coast of Pomerania, and was probably identical 
with Julian, founded by the Wends, being recognized as the 
island of Wallin, which Adam of Bremen, in the eleventh 
century, described as the largest and most flourishing com- 
mercial city in Europe. Burislaus, king of the Wends, sur- 
rendered the neighboring territory into the hands of Palnatoki, 
a great chief of Fionia, who ■ was pledged to his support. 
Accordingly he bull*- a stronghold here, and organized a band 
of pirates, commonly called vikings, though it must be ob- 
served that while every viking was a pirate, every pirate was 
not a viking. Only the pirates of princely blood were 
properly called vikings, or sea-kings, who haunted the vicks, 
or bays, and thus derived their name. The Jomsvikings were 
distinguished for their rare courage, and for the fearlessness 
with which they faced death. They were governed by strict 
laws, hedged about by exact requirements, and were also, it 
is said pledged to celibacy. Jomsberg was destroyed about the 
year 1175, by Waldemar the Great, of Denmark, aided by 
the Princes of Germany and the Chief, Barbarossa. Those 
of the pirates who survived, escaped to a place neai the mouth 
of the Elbe, where a few years after, they were annihilated by 
the Danes, who in the reign ol Canute VI completely destroyed 
their stronghold. Accounts of their achievements may be 
found in the Saga of King Olaf Tryggvesson (vol. I of Laing's 
Heimskringla) . The Icelanders sometimes joined the Nor- 
way pirates, as was the case with Biorn, but they did not send 
out pirate ships from Icelandic ports. Palnatoki died in the 
yeai 993. 

- Styrbiorn, son of King Olaf, ruled Sweden in connection 
with Eric, called the Victorious. Styrbiorn' s ambition, to 
which was added the crime of murder, led to his disgrace. 
He joined the vikings, adding sixty ships to their force. He 



172 Pke-Columbian Discoveky of 

Styrbiorn was killed, and escaped with the other Joms- 
vikings into the woods. "While Palnatoki lived, Biorn 
remained with him, distinguished among all, as a man of 
remarkable courage. 

The same summer [A. D. 996], the brothers, Biorn 
and Arnbiorn returned into Iceland to Ronhavnsos. 
Biorne was always afterwards called the Athlete of Brei- 
dav^ik. Arnbiorn, who had gotten much wealth abroad, 
bought the Ba.kka estate in Raunhavn, the same smnmer, 
lie lived there with little show or ostentation, and, in most 
affairs, was silent, but was, nevertheless, a man active in 
all things. Biorn, his brother, after his return from 
abroad, lived in splendor and elegance, for during his ab- 
sence, he had truly adopted the manners of courtiers. 
He much excelled Arnbiorn in personal appearance, and 
was none the less active in execution. He was far more 
expert than his brother in martial exercises, having im- 
proved much abroad. The same summer after his return, 
there was a general meeting near Headbrink,^ within the 
bay of Froda. All the merchants rode thither, clothed in 
colored garments, and there was a great assembly. House 
wife Thurid of Froda was there, with whom Biorn began 
to talk ; no one censuring, because they expected their con- 
versation would be long, as they had not seen each other 
for a great while. On the same day there was a fight, 
and one of the Nordenfield men was mortally wounded, 
and was carried down under a bush on the beach. So 
much blood flowed out ol the wound that there was a large 
pool of blood in the bush. The boy Kiarten, Thurid of 
Froda's son, was there. He had a little axe in his hand, 
and ran to the bush and dipped the axe in the blood. 
When the Sondensfield's men rode from the beach south, 



was killed, as stated, in 984, in a battle with his uncle near 
Upsula. 

' Dasent says in describing the coast: " Now we near the 
stupendous crags, of Hofdabrekka, Headbrink, where the 
mountains almost stride into the main." 



America by the Kokthmen. 1Y3 

Thord Blib asked Biorn how the conversation between 
him and Thurid of Froda ended. Biorn said that he was 
well satisfied. Then Thord asked if he had seen the boy 
Kiarten, their and Thorodd's son. " I saw him," said 
Biorn. " What is your opinion of him?" asked Thord. 
Biorn answered with the following song: 

" I saw a boy run 
With fearful eyes, 
The woman's image to 
The wolf's well ' in the wood ; 
People will say, 
That his true father [was] 
He that ploughed the sea, 
This the boy does not know." 

Thord said: "What will Thorodd say when he hears 
that the boy belongs to you ? ' ' Then Biorn sung : 

" Then will the noble born woman [make] 
Thorodd's suspicion 
Come true, when she gives me 
The same kind of sons ; 
Always the slender, 
Snow-white woman loved me, 
I still to her 
Am a lover." 

Thord said, it will be best foi you not to have any thing 
to do with each other, and that you turn your thoughts. 
"It is certainly a good idea," said Biorn, " but it is far 
from my intention; though there is some difference when 
I have to do with such men as her brother Snorre. " " You 
must take care of your own business, ' ' said Thord, and that 
ended their talk. Biorn afterward went home to Kami), 
and took the affairs of tlie family into his own hands, 
for his fatlier was now dead. The following winter he 
determined to make a journey over the hills, to Thurid. 
Although Thorodd disliked this, he nevertheless saw that 
it was not easy to prevent its occurrence, since before he 
was defeated by him, and Biorn was much stronger, and 
more skilled in arms than before. Therefore he bribed 



^ Referrinjj; to the dead man's blood. 



174 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

Thorgrim Galdrakin to raise a 6no"w -storm against Biorn 
when lie crossed tlie hills. When a day came, Biorn 
made a journey to Froda. When he proposed to retm-n 
home, the sky was dark and the snow-storm began. When 
he ascended the hills, the cold became intense, and the 
snow fell so thickly that he could not see his way. Soon 
the strength of the storm increased so much that he could 
hardly walk. His clothes, already wet through, froze 
around his body, and he wandered, he did not know where. 
In the course of the night he reached a cave, and in this 
cold house he passed the night. Then Biorn sung: 

" Woman that bringest 
Vestments,' would 
Not like my 

Dwelling in sucli a storm 
If ste knew that 

He who had before steered ships, 
Now in the rock cave 
Lay stiflFand cold." 

Again he sang: 

" The cold field of the swans, 
From the east with loaded ship I ploughed, 
Because the woman inspired me with love ; 
I know that I have great trouble suffered 
And now, for a time, the hero is 
Not in a woman's bed, but in a cave." 

Biorn stayed three days in the cave, before the storm 
subsided; and on the fourth day he came home from the 
mountain to Kamb. He was very weary. The servant 
asked him where he was during the storm. Biorn sung: 

" My deeds under 
Styrbiorn's proud banner are known. 
It came about that steel-clad Eric 
Slew men in battle ; 
Now I on the wide heaih, 
Lost my way [and], 
Could not in the witch-strong 
Storm, find the rond." ' 

' In Iceland the women are accustomed to bring travelers 
dry clothes. 

' All of these verses are extremely obscure and elliptical, 



America by the Northmen. 1Y5 

Biorn passed the rest of the Avintei at home; the follow- 
ing spring his brother Arnbiorn fixed his abode in Bakka, 
in Raunhafn, but Biorn li^ed at Kamb, and had a grand 
house. 

This same summer Thorodd the Tribute Taker invited 
Snorre the Priest, his kinsman, to a feast at his house in 
Froda, Snorre went there with twenty men. In the 
course of the feast, Thorodd told Snorre how much he was 
hurt and disgraced by the visits of Biorn Asbrandnson, to 
Thurid, his wife, Snorre 's sister, saying that it was right 
for Snorre to do away with this scandal. Snorre, after 
passing some days feasting with Thorodd, went home with 
many presents. Then Snorre the Priest rode over the hills 
and spread the report that he was going down to his ship 
in the bay of Raunhafn. Tliis happened ia summer, in 
the time of haymaking. "When he had gone as far south 
as the Kambian hills, Snorre said: " Now let us ride back 
from the hills to Kamb ; let it be known to you, ' ' he added, 
" what I wish to do. I have resolved to attack and destroy 
Biorn. But I am not willing to attack and destroy him in 
his house, for it is a strong one, and Biorn is stout and 
active, while our number is small. Even those who with 
greater numbers have attacked brave men in their houses, 
have fared badly, an example of whicli you know in the 
case of Gissur the White; who, when with eighty men, 
they attacked Gunnar ^ of Lithend, alone in his house, 
many were wounded and many were killed, and they would 
have been compelled to give up the attack, if Geir the 
Priest had not learned that Gunnar was short of arrows. 
Therefore," said he, "as we maj expect to find Biorn out 

though far more intelligible to the modern mind than the com- 
positions which belonged to a still older period. All the chief 
men of Iceland practiced the composition of verse. Chaucer 
makes his parson apologize for his inability to imitate the 
practice. It was believed that certain women had power over 
storms. 

' See the Saga of " Burnt Nial, " translated by Dasent. 



176 Pke-Columbian Discovert of 

of doors, it being the time of haymaking, I appoint you my 
kinsman. Mar, to give him the first wound; but I would 
have you kuo^iv this, that there is no room foi child's play, 
and you must expect a contest with a hungry wolf, unless 
your first wound shall be his death blow. ' ' As they rode 
from the hills toward his homestead, they saw Biorn in the 
fields; he was making a sledge,^ and no one was near him. 
He had no weapon but a small axe, and a large knife in 
his hand of a span's length, which he used to round the 
holes in the sledge. Biorn saw Snorre riding down from 
the hills, and recognized him. Snorre the Priest had on 
a blue cloak, and rode first. The idea suddenly occurred 
to Biorn, that he ought to take his knife and go as fast as 
he could to meet them, and as soon as he reached them, 
lay hold of the sleeve of Snorre with one hand, and hold 
the knife in the other, so that he might be able to pierce 
Snorre to the heart, if he saw that his own safety required 
it. Going to meet them, Biorn gave them hail, and Snorre 
returned the salute. The hands of Mar fell, for he saw 
that if he attacked Biorn, the latter would at once kill 
Snorre. Then Biorn walked along with Snorre and his 
comrades, asked what was the news, keeping his liands as 
at first. Then he said: " I will not try to conceal, neigh- 
bor Snorre, that my present attitude and look seem threat- 
ening to you, which might appear wrong, but for that 
I have understood that your coming is hostile. Now I 
desire that if you have any business to transact with me, 
you will take another course than the one you intended, and 
that you will transact it openly. If none, ] will that you 
make peace, which when done, I will return to my work, 
as I do not wish to be led about like a fool." Snorre re- 
plied : ' ' Our meeting has so turned out that we shall at this 
time part in the same peace as before; but I desire to get a 
pledge from you, that from this time you will leave off 
visiting Thurid, because if you go on in this there can never 

' These sledges were used in drawing hay, as the roads were 
then, as now, too poor for carts. 



Amebic A by the Northmen. 177 

te any real friendship between us. " Biorn replied : " This I 
will promise, and will keep it; but T do not know how I 
shall be able to keep it so long as Thurid and J live in the 
same land, " " There is nothing so great binding you here, 
said Snorre, "as to keep you from going to some other 
land." '•' "What you now say is true," replied Biorn, 
" and so let it be, and let our meeting end with this 
pledge, that neither you noi Thorodd shall have any trouble 
from my visits to Thurid, in the next year." With this 
they parted. Snorre the Priest rode down to his ship, 
and then went home to Helgefell. The day after Biorn 
rode south to Baunhafn, and engaged his passage in a ship 
for the same smnmer [A. D. 999]. "When all was ready 
they set sail with a north-east wind which blew during 
the greater part of that summer. ^Nothing was heard of 
the ship for a very long time.' 



III. GUDLEIF GUDLAUGSON. 

This narrative which shows what became of Biorn As- 
brandson, whose adventures are partially related in the 
previous sketch, is from the E}Tbyggia Saga. Notwith- 
standing the somewliat romantic character of these two 
narratives, there can be no doubt but that, in the main, 
they are true histories. 



There was a man named Gudleif, the son of Gudlaug 
the Kich, of Straumfiord and brother of Thorfinn, from 

' This is the only paragraph which applies directly to the 
subject in hand. The following narrative will bring Biorn to 
notice again. Note, however, that the north-east wind, long 
continued, would drive a ship toward the south-west, which, as 
we shall see, was the case with the ship in which Biorn sailed. 
This forms a curious and unexpected agreement with what 

oUows. 

12 



178 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

whom the Sturlingers are descended. Gudleif was a great 
merchant. He had a trading vessel, and Thorolf Eyrar 
Loptson had another, when they fought with Gyrid, son 
of Sigvald Earl. Gyrid lost an eye in that fight. It hap- 
pened near the end of the reign of King Olal the Saint, 
that Gudleif went on a trading voyage to the west of 
Dublin. On his return to Iceland, sailing from the west 
of Ireland, he met with north-east winds, and was driven 
far into the ocean west, and south-west, so that no land 
was seen, the summer being now nearly gone. Many 
prayers were offered that they might escape from the 
sea. At length they saw land. It was of great extent but 
they did not know what land it was. They took counsel 
and resolved to make f oi the land, thinking it unwise to con- 
tend with the violence ol the sea. They found a good har- 
bor, and soon after went ashore. A number of men came 
down to them. They did not recognize the people, but 
thought that their language resembled the Irish. ^ In a 
short time such a number of men had gathered around 
them as numbered many hundred. These attacked them 
and bound them all and drove them inland. Afterward 
they were brought before an assembly, and it was consid- 
ered what should be done with them. They thought that 
some wished to kill them, and that others were for divid- 
ing them among the villages as slaves. While this was 
going on, they saw a great numl)er of men riding ^ toward 
them with a banner lifted up, whence they inferred that 
some great man was among them. When the company 
drew near, they saw a man riding under the banner. He 

■ Few will infer much from this, since nothing is easier than 
to find resemblances between languages. 

^ The language may indicate that they were horseback, 
though it is not conclusive. At the period referred to, there 
may have been no horses in America. They were introduced 
by the Spaniards, after the discovery by Columbus. At least, 
such is the common opinion. This statement is made with- 
out reference to the proofs offered oi the existence of the horse 
at an earlier period. 



America by the Xoktiimen. 179 

was tall and had a martial air, and was aged and gray- 
haired. All present treated this man with the utmost 
honor and deference. They soon saw thai their case was 
referred to his decision. He commanded Gndleif and his 
comrades to be brought before him. Coming into his 
presence, he addressed them in the Northern tongue, 
and asked what land they came from. They replied that 
the chief part were Icelanders. The man asked which of 
them were Icelanders. Gudleif declared himself to be 
an Icelander, and saluted the old man, which he 
received kindly, and asked what part of Iceland he came 
from. He replied that he came from the district some 
called Bogafiord. He asked who lived in Bogafiord, to 
which Gudleif replied at some length. Afterward this 
man inquired particularly about all the principal men of 
Bogafiord and Breidafiord. He inquired with special 
interest into every thing relating to Snorre the Priest, and 
to his sister Tliurid, (^f Froda, and for the great Kiarten, 
her son. In the meanwhile the natives grew impatient 
about the disposition of the sailors. Then tlie great man 
left him, and took twelve of the natives apart, and con- 
ferred with them. Afterward he returned. Then the 
old man spoke to Gudleif and his comrades and said: 
" We have had some debate concerning you, and the people 
have left the matter to my decision; I now permit you to 
go where you will, and although the summer is nearly 
gone, I advise you to leave at once. These people are of 
bad faith, and hard to deal with, and now they think they 
have been deprived of their right." Then Gudleif asked, 
"Who shall we say, if we reach our own country again, 
to have given us our liberty? " He replied: '' That I will 
not tell you, for I am not willing that anj of my friends 
or kindred should come here, and meet with such a fate as 
you would have met, but for me. Age now comee on so 
fast, that I may almost expect any hour to be my last. 
Though I may live some time longer, there are other men 
of greater influence than myself, now at some distance 
from this place, and these would not grant safetj" oi peace 



180 Pee-Columbian Discovery of 

to any strange men." Then lie looked to the fitting out 
of their ship, and stayed at this place until a fair wind 
sprang up, so thai they might leave the port. Before they 
went away, this man took a gold ring from his haad and 
gave it to Gudleif, and also a good sword. Then he said 
to Gudleif: " If fortune permits you to reach Iceland, 
give this sword to Kiarten, hero of Froda, and this ring 
to Thurid, his mother. ' ' Gudlief asked, ' ' Who shall I say 
was the sender of this valuable gift ? " He replied: " Say 
that he sent it who loved the lady of Froda better than her 
brother, the Priest of Helgefell. Then if any man desires to 
know who sent this valuable gift, repeat my words, that I for- 
bid any one to seek me, for it is a dangerous voyage, un- 
less others should meet with the same fortune as you. 
This region is large, but has few good ports, and danger 
threatens strangers on all sides from the people, unless 
it shall fall to others as yourselves." After this they sep- 
arated. Gudleif, with his comrades, went to sea, and 
reached Ireland the same autumn, and passed the winter 
in Dublin. The next spring they sailed to Iceland, and 
Gudleif delivered the jewel into the hands of Thurid. It 
was commonly believed that there was no doubt but that 
the man seen was Biorn Breida\dking Kappa, but there is 
no other reliable report to prove this. 



ALLUSIONS TO VOYAGES FOUND IN ANCIENT 
MANUSCRIPTS. 

Professor Rafn, in Antiquitates Aonericance, gives brief 
notices of numerous Icelandic v^oyages to America, and 
other lands to the west, the particulars of which are not re- 
corded. The works in which these notices appear are of 
the highest respectability. It is only necessary here to give 
the facts, which have been collected with much care. 
They show that the pre-Columbian discovery of America 
left its recollection scattered throughout nearly the entire 



America by the Northmen. 181 

body of Icelandic history. Tlie existence ol a great land 
south-west of Greenland is referred to, not as a matter of 
speculation, but as something perfectly well known. All 
these references combine to furnish indisputable proof 
of the positions maintained in this work, showing as they 
do, beyond all reasonable question, that the impression 
which so generally prevailed in regard to the discovery 
of this land, could not have been the result of a literary 
fraud. Some of the facts are given below: 

1121. Eric, Bishop of Greenland,' went to search out 
Vinland. 
Bishop Eric Upse sought Vinland. 
1285. A new land is discovered west from Iceland. 

New land is found ' 

Adalbrand and Thorvald, the sons of Helge, found 

the new land. 
Adalbrand and Thorvald found new land west of 

Iceland. 
The Feather' Islands are discovered. 

' This is found in Annalcs Islandorum Regii, which gives 
the history of Iceland from the beginning down to 1307. 
Also in Annaks Flateyensis, and in Atina/es Resc7iiim. Eric 
was appointed Bishop of Greenland, but performed no duties 
and eventuall}' resigned that See, in order to undertake the 
mission to Vinland. He is also spoken of in two works as 
going to Vinland with the title of Bishop of Greenland, a title 
which he had se-^eral years before his actual consecration. 
Ritnbeg/a, p. 321, gives a list of the Bishops of Gardar, in 
Greenland. See Memoires de la Societe Royale, etc., 1836-1839, 
p. 382. 

'•' The manuscript is deficient here, but we must remember 
that Greenland had at this time, 1285, been known and ex- 
plored for four hundred years, and, therefore, that the land 
west of Iceland was beyond Greenland. Otherwise the entry 
would have possessed no significance. 

' The Feather Islands are mentioned in the Ldgmanns An- 
nall, or, Annals of the Governors of Iceland, and Annates 



182 Pke-Columbian Discoveby of 

1288. Rolf is sent bj King Eric to search out the new 

land,^ and called on people oi Iceland to go with 
him. 

1289. Kinff Eric sends Rolf to Iceland to seek out the 

new land. 

1290. Rolf traveled through Iceland, and called out men 

for a voyage to the new land. 

1295. Landa-Rolf died. 

1357. There came thirteen large ships to Iceland. Ein- 
dridesuden was wrecked in East Borgatiord, near 
Langeness. The crew and the greater part of 
the cargo were saved. Bessalangen was wrecked 
outside of Sida. Of its crew, Haldor Magre 
and Gunthorm Stale, and nineteen men alto- 
gether, were drowned. The cargo suffered also. 
There were also six ships driven back. There 
came likewise a ship from Greenland,^ smaller 
than the smallest ol Iceland ships, that came 
in the outer bay. It had lost its anchor. 
There were seventeen men on board, who had 
gone to Markland,^ and on their return were 
drifted here. But here altogether that winter, 

Ska/hoifitii, or, Annals of the Bishopric of Skalholt, written in 
the middle of the fourteenth century, long before Columbus 
went to Iceland. Beamish suggests that these are the Pen- 
guin and Bacaloa Islands. 

^ "The notices of Nyjaland and Duneyjar, would seem to 
refer to a re-discovery of some parts of the eastern coast of 
America, visited by earlier voyagers. The original appellation 
of Nyjaland, or Nyjafundu-land, would have led naturally to 
the modern English name of Newfoundland, given by Cabot, 
to whose knowledge the discovery would [might] have come 
through the medium of the commercial intercourse between 
England and Iceland in the fifteenth century." Beamish. 

" See the Decline of Greenland, in Introduction. 

' Markland (Woodland) was Nova Scotia, as we know from 
the description of Leif and others. These vessels doubtless 
went to get timber. All these accounts show that the West- 



Amekica by the Northmen. 183 

were eighteen large ships, besides the two that 
were wrecked iu the summer.^ 
1357. There came a ship from Greenland that had sailed 
to Markland, and there were eight men on board. 



Y. THE SAGA OF E^AK SOKKESON. 

This Saga is found in Gronland's Historishe Mindes- 
mcBrker, or "The Historical Monuments of Greenland," 
vol. II, pp. 669-724. Like the picture of Life in Green- 
land, already given {ante, pp. 81-83) the Saga of Einar 
Sokkeson exhibits real scenes occurring towards the middle 
of the twelfth century in that remote portion of the North. 
It affords a view of the state of societj in Greenland at that 
period when religion was somewhat nominal, and men 
gave full sway to their passions. Those who are familiar 
with the history of the blood) feuds that so long prevailed 
in Iceland, will recognize the resemblance which this narra- 
tive bears to many in that country, where the modes of 
settlement were the same. In perusing this Saga no one 
need question its authenticity. It is a faithful description 
of actual events, and was taken from the Flatey Book by 
Finn Magnussen, for the Historical Monuments of Green- 
land.^ The allusion to Ssemund helps to lix dates. 



There was a man named Sokke, son of Thorer, who 
lived at Brattahlid, in Greenland, He was friendly and 
much esteemed. His son's name was Einar, and he like- 
wise was of a friendly disposition. Both father and son 

ern ocean was generally navigated in the middle of the four- 
teenth century. 

'March 12 1888, the "VV. L. White'' was abandoned near 
Cape May, and drifted in a zig-zag course across the Atlantic, 
some 5,050 miles, and brought up in the harboi of Stornoway, 
November 29, following. 

■" See Memoires de la Societe Roy ale, 1840- 1844, p. 81, 
with an abstract and notes. 



184 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

had much influence among the Green landers, and were 
esteemed their principal men. On a time Sokke assembled 
the people at a general meeting, when he told the people 
that it was his desire that the country should no longer be 
without a bishop, and that he willed that the people should 
raise the means for promoting the erection of a bishop's 
seat. All those present agreed to the proposition. Then 
Sokke bade his son Einar prepare to go to Norway, as 
he thought him the ablest man to carrj the message. He 
said that he would go if it was his father's wish. Einar 
took with him much fur goods and ivory, in order to gain 
the fav^or of the chiefs. He arrived with his crew in Nor- 
way when Sigurd Jorsalf ari was King of Norway. Einar came 
to the king and gained his good will by means of his presents, 
and afterwards made known his errand, and urged the king 
earnestly to interest himself in this necessity of his coun- 
try. The king thought it very needful, and afterwards 
called a man named j^rnald. He was a piou& priest, and 
well fitted to be a teacher of the jDeo^jle. The king asked 
him to prepare for this difficult task for the sake of God 
and his request. And then he said: " I will send thee to 
Denmark, to Adzur, Archbishop of Lund, with letters 
bearing my seal." Arnald answered that he was unwill- 
ing to think of such a thing, in the lirst place, because he 
did not think himself much inclined, that he did not wish 
to part with his friends and relations, and in the third 
place, that he would have to deal with a difficult set of 
people. The king then said that as much more hardsliip 
as men suffered here, so much greater would be tlie reward 
they would have hereafter. Then Arnald said that he liad 
not the heart to refuse the request of the king, "but," he 
added, " if I am consecrated a bishop I propose the condi- 
tion that Einar sliall bind himself with an oath to protect 
the rights of the bishopric and tlie property consecrated 
to God, and punish everyone who attacks it and be the 
defender of all those things belonging to the chui'ch." 
The king asked Einar if he was willina and Einar agreed 
to the wish of the king. Thereafter the bishop-elect 



America by the Northmen. 185 

went to Archbisliop Adzur and told his errand and deliv- 
ered the king's letters. The archbishop received him well, 
and having, by examination, found that this man was well 
able to sustain such a high dignity, he consecrated Arnald 
as bishop and dismissed hiia with honor. Afterwards 
Bishop Arnald returned to the king who received him well. 
Einar had brought with him from Greenland a bear, which 
he gave to King Sigurd, and in return he received honors 
and presents from the king. Thereafter Einar and the 
bishop sailed in the same ship, but another ship was fitted 
out bj Arnbiorn the Eastman, and several men of Norway 
were enlisted with him to sail to Greenland. Then they 
started on their voyage, but as they did not have favor- 
able winds, the bishop and Einar came to Halltavotsos 
under the Eyiafjokull. There dwelt Steinund the Wise 
in Oddi. He came down to meet the bishop and invited him 
to be his guest for the winter. The bishop thanked him, 
and accepted his offer. Einar remained that winter under 
Eyiafjokull. It is said that when the bishop rode from 
the village with his men he let their horses take rest on 
a certain village in Sandeyium, bui they rested themselves 
outside. Then went out an old woman with a wool -card 
in her hand; she came to a man and said, "Thou must 
fasten, my little brother, the teeth in my card." He 
received the card and agreed to mend it, and took a hammer 
out of his sack and fastened the tooth so that the old woman 
was very well pleased. This man was the bishop him- 
self. He was very skilful to do everything, and this cir- 
cumstance shows what a humble man he was. He staid 
at Oddi all winter and Ssemund treated them all well. 
But from j^rnbiorn nothing was heard, which seemed 
strange, and so a few summers passed away. 

The next summer Einar and the bishop sailed from Ice- 
land and came to Greenland at Ericsfiord, where the peo. 
pie received them exceedingly well. There was no far- 
ther news from Arnbiorn and then the people began to 
Bay that Arnbiorn and his crew must have been wrecked. 

The bishop established his seat in Gardar and prepared 



186 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

to dwell there. Eiuar and liis father gave him their best 
aid. They were also the most honored of all by the bishop. 



AENBIOEN AND HIS MEN FOUND DEAD. 

There was a Greenlander named Sigurd, the son of 
Kial. He went out in the autumn to the desert regions to 
hunt. He was a skilful sailor. He and his crew numbered 
fifteen men. They came in the summer to the mountain 
called Huitsark. There they found some good camping 
places, where men had alread_y been and some opportunity 
for hunting. Then Sigurd said, " What should you best 
like to do, to return or to sail further ? But little of the 
summer remains and the catch has been very small. The 
men said they would like to return, foi it was dangerous 
to life to sail in the great bays among the icebergs. He 
agreed that it was true, but he added, "I fancy that bjr 
far the greatest catch remains for us, if we could only 
come to it." They asked him to decide, and said 
that they had trusted to his skill for a long time and had 
succeeded well. Then he said that he would go forward; 
and so they did. One of the crew called Steinthor be- 
gan to talk in this wise: " I dreamed last night, Sigurd, 
a dream which I will relate to you now when we be- 
gin to sail on this great fiord. It seemed to me that I had 
come between some mountains and called for help. Si- 
gurd said that the dream was only middling. " Take care 
that thou do not tread under foot thy own safety, nor fall 
into such distress that you cannot keep your ir^outh shut." 
Steinthor was considered hasty of mind and very rash, 
"When they came a little f artliei into the fiord , Sigurd said : 
" It seems to me that there is a ship in the fiord." They 
said that it was so. Sigurd said that they should soon 
get knowledge about the matter. They steered into 
the fiord and saw that the vessel was stranded at the 
mouth of a river, and a fence was built before it at 
the upper side. It was a very large sea-going ship. 
Afterwards they went on shore and saw a great 



America by the Northmen. 187 

hut, and a tent at a short distance. Then Sigurd said 
that they would set up their ship-tent. The daj is now 
gone, and I wish the crew to keep quiet and behave very 
careful, which they did. The next morning they went out 
and looked around. They saw a heavy stick of timber 
in which an axe was fastened and the corpse of a man lying 
at the side of the block. Sigurd said that the man who 
hewed the timber had died of hunger. Afterwards they 
came to the hut and saw there another corpse. Sigurd said 
that he had gone as far as his strength would allow and that 
these men must have been the servants of the party in the 
hut. An axe was also lying at the side of this man. Then 
Sigurd said: "It is my counsel to take the roof off of the 
hut, that the stench of the bodies that have probably lain 
a long time in a decayed state in the hut might go out. 
Steinthor thought it was not worth while to take more 
trouble than necessary, and tried to push the door in while 
the others unroofed the hut. Immediately Steinthor be- 
gan to scream and run, and his ship-mates ran after him, 
when he leaped into a rift in the rock where no one could 
get at him, and there met his death. Sigurd said that he was 
indeed a man who dreamed such things as come to pass. 
Afterward they took the roof off of the hut and did as 
Sigurd ordered, and no harm happened to them. Then they 
saw there in the hut dead men and a plenty of goods. 
Then said Sigurd : " It seems to me advisable to put the 
bodies in kettles which belonged to them, -with boiling 
water, that the flesh may be separated from the bones, 
which it will then be easier to carry to the church; and 
I think it most likely that it is Arnbiorn who has been 
detained at this place. I have heard that the beautiful 
ship which lies here on the shore belonged to him. It 
was a very good ship, with a carved prow, painted and 
adorned with many wood carvings. The lower part 
of the merchant ship was very much broken and Sigurd 
said that according to his belief it could nol be put to any 
use. They took the sails out of the ship and bm-ned her, 
and then sailed away from these desert regions in their 
own ship with the boat of the great ship. 



188 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

They readied the vicinity of their own homes and paid 
the bishop a visit at Gardar, and told him the news and 
the finding of the goods. ' 'Now, ' ' he said, ' ' I cannot view 
it otherwise than that the property which was with the 
corpses must be used in the most proper way, and if I 
can use my power to promote this end, I will that it be so." 
The bishop said that he had done prudently and well, 
and the same said every man. Much property was found 
with the bodies of the men. Sigurd said thai il was most 
proper to give it to the bishopric for the good of their 
souls. The rest of the goods the finders divided among 
themselves according to the provisions of the laws of 
Greenland. 

When these things were told in Norway it wa* heard by 
a man named Ozsur, and he was the nephew of Arnbiorn. 
He and some men who had lost their relations fitted out 
a ship in the hope that they might recover the property. 
They came to Ericsfiord, and men went to them and be- 
gan to trade. Afterwards the crew looked out places to 
live in Ozsur, the master of the ship, went to Gardar to 
the bishop and remained there during the winter. In tlie 
East bygd (the eastern district of Greenland) Kolbein, 
the son of Thorliot, a Norway man, began the transaction 
of business. The master of the third ship was Therniund, 
the son of Kodrum, and his brother Thorgils, and they had 
with them a great many companions. 

CONCERNING OZSUR AND THE BISHOP. 

In the meantime it came to pass that Ozsur declared 
to the bishop that he expected to receive the inheritance of 
his relation Arnbiorn, and asked the bishop to deliver the 
goods into the hands of himself and his companions The 
bishop replied that he had received the goods in con- 
formance to the laws of Greenland, provided for, and 
said that he did so according to his own will, and said 
that it was most proper that the goods should be used for 
the benefit of the souls of the former owners and the 
support of the church where their bones were entomiied, 



America by the Kokthmen. 189 

and declared that it was a lack of true spirit now to present 
claims on such property. Afterwards Ozsur would not 
remain at Gardar with the bishop, but rejoined his crew, 
and they passed the winter togetlier. In the spring 
Ozsur brought the case before the Thing of Greenland 
which was held at Gardar. To this place came the bishop 
and Einar, son of Sokke, and many men in their company. 
Ozsur came also with his crew. And when the jury was 
seated Einar went to the court with his followers and 
said that it would be a difficult thing to deal with for- 
eigners in Norway if the case was there, but " here we 
are wont to have the law which is in force in this coun- 
try," said Einar. "When the decision of the court was 
made their claims were rejected and they had to retire. 
Ozsur was much displeased. He thought that he had ac- 
quired disgrace but no property; therefore, he brewed 
this mischief to go to the place where the painted ship was 
lying and cut two planks on each side of the ship from the 
keel. After that he escaped to the West bygd and met 
there with Kalbein and Ketill the son of Kalf and told 
them what had happened. Kalbein said that the case was 
not properly treated and that the result was bad. Ketill 
said : " I would advise you to seek yom safety with ue then. 
I have heard that the bisliop and Einar have made an 
agreement together, and it will be difficult foi you to with- 
stand the skill of the bishop and the energy of Einar; 
but let us all unite together." He said that it was most 
likely that his counsel was the best. 

In the company of these merchants was a certain man 
called Steingrim. Ozsur returned thereafter to Kidia- 
berg, where he had been before. 

THE SLAYING OF OZSUK. 

The bishop was very angry when he heard that the ship 
was spoiled, and called Einar, the son of Sokke, and said: 
" Now I must remind you of youi promise which you gave 
by an oath before we left Norway, that you would revenge 



190 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

every wrong done against the bishopric and its property 
whoever may have committed it. Now it seemed to me 
that Ozsiir forfeited his life when he destroyed our prop- 
erty, and I call you an oath-breaker if it end peaceably." 

Einar answered: "It is not well done, my lord, but 
some men say that there is something to excuse. Ozsnr, 
because he has lost so much, though he did not conduct 
himself when he saw the valuable property which belonged 
to his relations and he could not get it. And I do not 
know what I can say to the purpose in such a case. " They 
parted dissatisfied with one another, and the bishop's coun- 
tenance seemed angry. 

But when the people were assembling to the feast of 
the consecration of their church and to a festival at Long- 
ness, the bishop was at the festival with Einar. Many came 
to the service and the bishop sang mass. 

Ozsur had come to the place, and was standing at the south 
side of the church, close to the church wall, and a man called 
Brandr, son of Thorde, one of the men ol the bishop's 
household, spoke to him. This man bade Ozsur yield to 
the bishop. "I expect," he said, "that all things will 
thus come out right, but I fear danger." Ozsur answered 
that he could not forget the bad manner in which he had 
been treated, and about those things of which they were 
now speaking. 

Then the bishop went out of the church homeward to 
the house and Einar with him. And when they came to 
the principal entrance of the house, Einar turned away 
from the company and went back to the churchyard alone 
and took an axe from the hands of a man who had come 
there to attend Divine service, and came to the south side 
of the churchyard. Ozsur was standing there leaning upon 
his axe. Einar gave him at once a mortal wound, and then 
went where the tables were laid. Einar came up to the 
table opposite the bishop, but said not a word. Afterwards 
Brandr, the son of Thorde, came into the house before the 
bishop and said: "Is there any news brought you, my 
lord ? " The bishop said that he had not heard anything. 



Amekica by the Northmen. 191 

" But what have vou to say ? " He replied, " Just now a 
man was obHo;ed to fall down outside. " The bishop asked, 
" Who was the cause of this thing, and to whom has it hap- 
pened ? " Brandr replied that he was near the man who 
was able to tell. The bishop asked, "Art thou the cause 
of the death of Ozsur ? " He answered, "Of course I am. " 
The bishop said, " Such works are evil, but for this there is 
some excuse." 

Brandr proposed that the corpse should be washed, and 
that the vigilia should be sung over it. The bishop said 
that he would give time for that purpose, and the men then 
sat down at the tables, but did not eat much. 

The bishop desiring to get a man to sing over the corpse 
Einar insisted that it was right to give the body honorable 
burial. The bishop said that he thought it was most proper 
not to bring the body to tlie [cathedral] church, " but on 
account of your request it shall be buried here at this 
church where no priest lives. " But he would not allow the 
men to sing over the corpse before it was dressed in the 
burial clothes. The bishop said that he would not hurry 
the case. 

Then Einar said, " Here has been done a very bad deed, 
chiefly at your instance, and now we have to deal with 
mighty enemies, and I think that great trouble will rise up 
among us." 

the manslaughter of einar, son of sokke. 

These things were now reported and the merchants heard 
of them. Then said Ketill, the son of Kalf : " j^ot far 
from what I predicted has it happened. I told him that 
he would put his head in danger." A man named Simon, 
one of the relations of Ozsur, was a mighty man and very 
strong. Ketill said that it was very likely that if Simon 
would do according to the best of his ability he might 
reveno^e the death of Ozsur, his relation. Simon said that 
he would not use many great words about it. Ketill allowed 
their ship to be fitted out, and sent a message to Kalbein the 
Steersman, that " I will have a suit against Einar, because 



192 Pke-Columbian Discoveky of 

I know the laws of Greenland, and I am obliged to be 
present, and moreo\^er have a plenty of men when they 
come to ns," 

Kalbein said that he was willing to do according to the coun- 
sel of Ketill. Afterwards he went away and met Kalbein and 
told him about the light, and added the message of Ketill 
that they should hasten to his assistance in time, and be 
present at the Thing of the Greenlanders. Kalbein 
answered that he would surely come if it was possible, and 
he thought that the Greenlanders would get no benefit in 
killinsr their men. Ketill was left to manage the cause and 
started for the Thing in company with a few of his men, 
and told the merchants to follow as soon as possible, and 
bring their goods along with them. As soon as Kalbein 
received this message he took his departure and asked his 
companions to go to tlie Thing. He said, " I shall have 
such a strong party, that it is uncertain whether the Green- 
landers will be able to do as they like." !Now Kalbein and 
Ketill met and laid plans together, and both were able 
men. Now they sailed, and though the wind was unfavor- 
able they at last arrived and had many men in their com- 
pany, but not so many as they had expected. 

Then came the men to the Thing, Sokke was already 
present. He was a wise man, and was then old, and accus- 
tomed to make judgments. He went to Kalbein and Ketill 
and said, " I offer myself to examine the case that is 
between you, and although it is a very difficult task for me, 
as Einar is my son, still I will try to do what may be deemed 
right by me and other competent men." Ketill said that 
he thought that the suit should proceed until finished, but 
that he would not object to a friendly settlement, and " if 
also we have been badly treated we are not accustomed to 
being subdued." Sokke said that he supposed that their 
number would not be sufficient to stand a fight, and thought 
it was certain that they would get more honor if he should 
judge the cause. The merchants went to law and plead 
the case against Einar, Then Einar said it will be reported 
far and near that these people cited us before the law. And 



America by the Northmen. 193 

he went to the jury and made dissension among the jm-ors, 
so that they could not get justice. Then said Sokke, it is 
open for you to receive my offer to settle the case. Ketill 
said that he thought it should not be, and then asked, 
' ' what indemnilication could you offer, when there is the 
same prejudice in favor of Einar in that cause ? ' ' Then 
they separated for that time. 

The merchants could not come from the "West bygd to the 
Thing on account of the weather when they were ready to 
sail with their two ships. But it was intended to settle the 
affair at midsummer at Eide. Then the merchants came 
from the west side, and cast their anchors at an isthmus 
where all met together and kept their counsel. Then Kal- 
bein said that it would not have been so near to a settle- 
ment, if they had all been together, and it seems to me now 
the best course that we all go to this meeting, as well pre- 
pared as possible. Then they separated and hid themselves 
in a bay in the neighborhood of the bishop's seat. 

Once it happened at the bishop's seat when the bells 
were rung for high mass, that Einar, the son of Sokke 
arrived. And when the merchants heard that they said 
that a very great honor was paid to Einar, because the bells 
were rung to salute him, and said that it was a great shame 
and were disgusted with it. Ketill said: "Do not mis- 
apprehend that so much, for it may happen that this will 
prove his death knell before evening. ' ' 

Now Einar arrived with his attendants, and seated them- 
selves on the slope of the hill. Sokke presented some things 
for the settlement, and then estimates were made respecting 
their value. Ketill said, " I wish that Hermund, the son of 
Kodran, would fix the price of the valuables with me." 
" Let it be so," Sokke said. Simon, the relation of Ozsur, 
looking much displeased, was walking around while the value 
of the goods was settled. Afterwards an old armour was 
offered. Then said Simon, such an offer is shameful for 
such a man as Ozsur was, and he threw the armour away 
on the ground, and went to those who were seated on the 
hill. 

13 



194 Pre-Columbian Discovery of 

When the Greenlanders saw that thej roused hastily and 
went down the slope against Simon. Then Kalbein went 
up at the side, where they all turned away and attacked 
them in the rear alone separated from his men. And at 
the same time he attacked Einar from behind and hewed 
him between the shoulders, and the axe of Einar sank into his 
head, and so they both got mortal wounds. Einar said 
when he fell : ' ' Such things were to be expected. ' ' There- 
after Thorder, the foster brother of Einar, came running 
with the intention of hewing Kalbein down, but he turned 
round and struck him in the throat with the point of the axe 
and there he was killed. A hard fight arose between them. 
The bishop was seated by Einar and he breathed his last 
on his knee. 

A man named Steingrimr told the parties that they 
would do well to put an end to the tight, and he tried to 
separate the men, but both sides were so enraged that Stein- 
grimr was pierced with a sword in the heat of the fight. 
Einar died at the top of the hill at the storehouse of tlie 
Greenlanders. And now the men were dangerously 
wounded, and Kalbein and his party went down to the boat 
with three of their companions and departed over Einar 's 
fiord to the place where the ships were lying on account of 
the great haste in fitting them out. Kalbein told them that 
it had been a hard fight, " and I do not believe that the 
Greenlanders are more pleased with this issue than the 
former time. Ketill said: " You happened to speak a true 
word when you said that we might hear his death knell 
before we should depart, and I think Einar had to be car- 
ried away dead to the church. " Kalbein said that he had 
tried to do his best for that purpose. Ketill said: " It is 
likely that the Greenlanders will pay us a visit, therefore, 
I consider it advisable to prepare to the extent of our 
power, and that all men keep on board during the nights." 
And this they did. 

Sokke was very sorry when he heard the news, and called 
upon the men of the country to come to his aid for the 
approaching fight. 



America by the Nokthmen. 195 



THE SETTLEMENT BETWEEN THE MEECHANT8 AND THE 
GKKENLANDERS. 

There was a man named Hallr. He lived in Solarfield, 
and was a wise man and a thrifty peasant. He belonged 
to the company of Sokke, and went the latest with his men. 
He said to Sokke : " I do not expect much success from your 
plan to engage great ships with small craft, and with such 
means of defense as I am sure they have prepared. And 
I do not know tliat you can trust the men you have. Of 
course, all good men will do their best, but others will spare 
themselves, and then very soon the leaders will be exhausted, 
and then it will look darker respecting the issue of our 
doings than before. Now, it seems to me advisable if we 
are going to engage with the enemy that every man shall be 
bound with an oath to fall or gain the victory." The men 
were much discouraged when they heard such words of 
Hallr. Sokke said, we cannot fix these things in such a 
way that they may be well settled. Hallr said that he 
would try to make up a settlement between them, and he 
called to the merchants and said, Will it be open for me to 
come and see you ? At this, Kalbein and Ketill answered 
that he was at liberty to do so. Then he went and urged 
them to settle affairs after all the things that had happened. 
They replied that they were at present prepared for what- 
ever the others had put into their minds, but that all these 
outrages were committed by the inhabitants of the country. 
" But now when you show such a good will towards us we 
are willing to accept your offer to settle between us." He 
declared himself willing to do so, and decide as he thought 
most just, however, each party should like it. Afterwards 
these things were related to Sokke. He also said that he 
would submit to the judgment of Hallr. The merchants 
should in the night fit. out their ships. Then it was said 
that Sokke could not agree upon the other condition, that 
they should depart as soon as possible, " but if they insist 
upon remaining and annoy me it will certainly happen that 



196 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

the J shall fall as outlaws wherever they are found. ' ' 'Now 
they departed, and a meeting for compromise was agreed 
upon. Ketill said: It does not seem likely that we shall 
soon be ready to sail, but our store of provisions begins to 
diminish, therefore, I advise that we look out for food, and 
I know where a man lives who has a plenty of provisions, 
and I think we had better find it out. The crew said that 
they were ready. Afterwards they started from the ship, 
thirty men altogether, all armed, where all had gone away. 
The name of the peasant who lived there was Thorer. 
Then Ketill said, "My advice has not proved good." 
Afterwards they left the village and went over the side of 
a mountain back to the sliips, and there were shrubs grow- 
ing where they went. Then Ketill said, " I feel sleepy," 
and said he, " I wish to lie down and sleep." They told 
him that it was not advisable to do so. Notwithstanding, 
he lay down to sleep, and the people seated themselves 
around him. After a short time he awoke and said: I 
liave seen much in the dreams that will come to pass. I 
think it will be profitable to pull up the bush that is under 
my head. They pulled up the bush, and under it was a 
great underground store. Ketill said let us first find out 
what is here to catch. There they found sixty beeves and 
twelve vettis ^ of butter, and a great quantity of dried fish. 
" It is well," said Ketill, " that I did not tell you a story." 
Now they departed to their ship with the stores that they 
got. Now the time for the settlement drew near, and both 
parties were present, the merchants as well as the inhabi- 
tants of the land. Then spake Hallr in this way: This is 
the settlement I propose between you. I will that the 
manslaughter of Ozsur and Einar may offset each other, but 
for the greater value of one of the men, the Eastmen shall 
be considered outlaws, and not be allowed to have their 
living nor abode in this country. That the manslaughter 
of Steingrimr Bonder and Simon should be considered equal, 

' Vat. An old weight of about eighty pounds still used in 
Ireland. 



America by the Northmen. 197 

as well as that of Krak the Eastman and Thorfinn the Green- ■ 
lander, of Yighoots the Eastman and Biarne the Green- 
lander, of Thoris and of Thord. Now there remains the 
manslaughter of a man named Thorer, for whom no fines 
are paid, and he has left several children all under age, and 
that this ought to be paid with money. 

Sokke said that he and other Greenlanders objected to 
the judgment that the men should be considered alike. 
Hallr replied that he thought his decision should be final, 
and so they departed. 

Afterwards the ice was driven into the coast and all the 
fiords were closed up, so that the Greenlanders entertained 
the hope that they might yet attack the strangers, who could 
not leave so soon as was agreed upon. But at the change 
of the moon all the ice was driven away, and the merchants 
had a fair wind from Greenland. They arrived in Norway, 
and Kalbein had a white bear with him from Greenland, and 
he brought the animal to the King Harald Gille, and pre- 
sented it to him, and told the king that the Greenlanders 
had deserved a severe punishment, and spoke very ill of 
them. But the king was afterwards otherwise informed, 
and he looked upon Kalbein as a bearer of false reports, so 
that he did not receive any reward for the animal. 

Afterwards Kalbein deserted to the party of Sigurd Hem- 
bridge (the bad deacon), and attacked King Harald Gille 
in his house and wounded him. But when they afterwards 
passed the coast of Denmark in a fresh breeze, Kalbein 
being in a boat taken in tow, the towing line broke and 
Kalbein was drowned. Hermund and his crew came to 
Iceland to their relations and estates. Thus the saga is ended. ^ 

' The date of Arnold's appointment as Bishop of Gardar, in 
Greenland, may be uncertain. He remained in Greenland, how- 
ever, till 1 150, when John I was sent out. In 1152 he was 
translated to the See of Hammer, Norway. The Saga belongs to 
near the middle of the century. Des Antiquaires dii Nord, 
1840-4, p. 100. 



198 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 



YI. GEOGKAPHICAL FRAGMENTS. 

The rest of these documents come from a work which pro- 
fesses to give a description of the earth in the middle age. 
From this it appears tiiat the Icelanders had a correct idea 
of the location of Vinland in New England, thougli they 
did not comprehend the fact that they liad discovered a 
new Continent. The account is found in Antiquitates 
AmericancB, p. 283. In the appendix of that work may 
be seen a/ac shnile of the original manuscript. The second 
account is from Antiqultates Ainericanm, p. 292. It was 
found originally in the miscellaneous collection called the 
Grlpla. The failure to recognize modern discoveries shows 
that the description is Pre-Columbian. 



A BEIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE WHOLE EARTH. 

The earth is said to be divided into three parts. ^ One 
of these is called Asia, and extends from north-east to 
south-west, and occupies the middle of the earth. In the 
eastern part are three separate regions, called Indialand. 
In the farthest India, the Apostle Bartholomew preached 
the faith; and there he likewise gave up his life (for the 
name of Christ). In the nearest India, the Apostle Thomas 
preached, and there also he suffered death for the cause of 
God. In tliat part of tlie earth called A-sia, is the city of 
Nineveh, greatest of all cities. It is three days' journey 
in length and one day's journey in breadth. There is also 
the city of Babylon, ancient and very large. There King 
Nebuchadnezzar formerly resided, but now that city is so 
thoroughly destroyed that it is not inhabited by men, on 
account of serpents and all manner of noxious creatures. 
In Asia is Jerusalem, and also Antioch; in this city Peter 
the Apostle founded an Episcopal seat, and where he, the 

' This is in accordance with the maps of that early period, 
some of which, undoubtedly, were before the writer's eye. 



America by the Northmen. 199 

first of all men, sang mass. Asia Minor is a region of 
Grt at Asia. There the Apostle John preached, and there 
also, in the city of Ephesus, is his tomb. They say that 
fom- rivers flo^v out of Paradise.^ One is called Pison or 
Ganges; this empties into tlie sea surrounding the world. 
Pison rises under a mountain called Orcobares. The second 
river flowing from Paradise, is called Tigris, and the third, 
Euphrates. Both empty into the Mediterranean (sea), near 
Antioch. The 'Nile, also called Geon, is the fourth river 
that runs from Paradise. It separates Asia from Africa, 
and flows through the whole of Egypt. ^ In Egypt is New 
Babylon (Cairo), and the city called Alexandria. 

The second part of the earth is called Africa, which 
extends from the south-west to the north-west. ^ There are 
Serkland, and three regions called Blaland (land of black- 
men or negroes). The Mediterranean sea divddes Europe 
from Africa. 

Europe is the third part of the earth, extending from 
west and north-west to the north-east. In the east of 
Europe is the kingdom of Russia. There are Holmgard, 
Palteskia and Smalenskia. South of Russia lies the king- 
dom of Greece. Of this kingdom, the chief city is Con- 
stantinople, which our people call Miklagard. In Mikla- 

' This is a confused geography, based on. Genesis II, 10-15. 

^ The modern discoveries in connection with the source of 
the Nile are all shown in the maps of Ptolemy, proving that 
the great lakes which serve as feeders were well known at a 
very early period. Still the old northern geographer's ideas 
were confused. 

^ This is the way Africa was represented at that early pe- 
riod. That continent had been circumnavigated by Hanno, 
though the maps did not show it, but indicated usually the 
northern part of Africa, which was made to appear longest 
from east to west. This fact, taken with the fact that the writer 
has only a few words to say about Africa, proves that he wrote 
at a very early period, even before the date of Pre-Columbian 
sketches like those of Fra Mauro and Behaim. See the Atlases 
of Lelewell and Santarem. Anfe, p. 12. 



200 Pke-Columbian Discovery of 

gard is a cliurch, which the people call St. Sophia, but the 
Northmen call it JEgisif.^ This church exceeds all the 
other churches in the world, both as respects its structure 
and size. Bulgaria and a great many islands, called the 
Greek islands, belong to the kingdom of Greece. Crete 
and Cyprus are the most noted of the Greek islands. Sicily 
is a great kingdom in that part of the earth called Europe. 
Italy is a country south of the great ridge of mountains, 
called by us Mundia [Alps]. In the remotest part of Italy 
is Apulia, called by the Northmen, Pulsland. In the 
middle of Italy is Rome. In the north of Italy is Lom- 
bardy, which we call Lombardland. North of the moun- 
tains on the east, is Germany, and on the south-west is 
France. Hispania, which we call Spainland, is a great 
kingdom that extends south to the Mediterranean, between 
Lombardy and France. The Rhine is a great river that 
runs north from Mundia, between Germany and France. 
Near the outlets of the Rhine is Friesland, northward from 
the sea. North of Germany is Denmark. The ocean runs 
into the Baltic sea, near Denmark. Sweden lies east of 
Denmark, and Norway at the north. North of Norway is 
Finnmark. The coast bends thence to the north-east, and 
then toward the east, until it reaches Permia, which is 
tributary to Russia. From Permia, desert tracts extend to 
the north, reaching as far as Greenland.'^ Beyond Green- 

' The Northmen were familiar with Constantinople. 

* Greenland appears in Ptolemy as an extension of Norway, 
but was not placed sufificently fai west, showing that the map 
makers did not fully understand the accounts they had re- 
ceived. The Northmen understood that a great isthmus 
extended from Norway to Greenland, through the high ice 
regio.i, making the two lands one; while Greenland extended 
to Vinland, which in turn went southward and turned eastward 
until it nearly reached Africa. In fact South America pushes 
eastward within twenty degrees of Cape Verde, Africa. On 
the Lenox globe, 1508-9, these two points are placed in the 
ame longitude, Africa and South America overlapping. So 
much for the old northern geography. 



America by the Koethmen. 201 

land, southward, is Helluland; bsj^ond that is Markland; 
from thence it is not far to Vinland, which some men are 
of the opinion extends to Africa.^ England and Scotland 
are one island; but each is a separate kingdom. Ireland 
is a great island. Iceland is also a great island north of 
Ireland. All these countries are situated in that part of 
the world called Europe. Kext to Denmark is Lesser Swe- 
den; then is Oeland, then Gottland, then Helsingeland, 
theu Vermel and, and the two Kvendlands, which lie north 
of Biarmeland. From Biarmeland stretches desert land 
toward the north, until Greenland begins. South of Green- 
land is Helluland; next is Markland, from thence it is not 
far to Yinland the Good, which some think goes out to 
Africa; and if this is so, the sea must extend between Yin- 
land and Markland. 2 It is told that Thorfinn Karlsefne cut 
wood here [in Markland] to ornament his house, ^ and went 
afterward to seek out Vinland the Good. He came there 
where they thought the land was, but did not reach it,* and 

' In the face of this and a multitude of similar statements, 
Mr. Bancroft endeavored to make his readers believe that the 
locality of Vinland was uncertain. One might, with equal pro- 
priety, tell us that the location of Masachusetts itself was uncer- 
tain, because, according to the original grant, it extended to 
the Pacific ocean, or that Virginia and Florida were uncertain 
localities, because both at one time included Massachusetts. 

' This writer did not appear to be familiar with the narratives 
of Karlsefne. The writer's argument is not plain, where he 
says, "if this is so," etc.; but as Markland was Nova Scotia 
and Vinland was Massachusetts, we may perhaps accept this 
as a recognition of the Gulf of Maine and Massachusetts Bay. 
When, in 1542, Allefonsce reached this region he did not know 
whither the sea extended: "I have been at a bay as far as 
forty-two degrees between Norumbega [Markland] and Florida 
[Massachusetts], but I have not seen the end and I do not 
know whether it extends any farther." "The Northmen in 
Maine," p. 94. 

' See ante, p. 158, n. 3. 

* This is erroneous. See Saga of Thorfinn, ante, p. 137. 



202 Pre-Columbian Discoveet of 

got none of the wealth of the land. Leif the Lucky first 
discovered Vinland, and then he met some merchants in 
distress at sea, and by God's grace, saved their lives. He 
introduced Christianity into Greenland, and it flourished so 
much that an Episcopal seat was set up in the place called 
Gardar. England and Scotland are an island, and yet each 
is a separate kingdom. Ireland is a great island. These 
countries are all in that part of the world called Europe. 

FROM CmiPLA. 

Bavaria is bounded by Saxony; Saxony is bounded by 
Holstein, and next is Denmark. The sea runs between the 
eastern countries. Sweden is east of Denmark. Norway 
is to the north. Finmark is east of Norway, and from 
thence the land extends to the north-east and east until you 
come to Biarmeland. This land is under tribute to Gar- 
daridge. From Biarmeland desert places lie all northward 
to the land which is called Greenland [which, however, the 
Greenlanders do not affirm, but believe to have seen it 
otherwise, both from drift timber that is known and cut 
down by men, and also f ron reindeer which have marks upon 
their ears, or bands upon their horns, likewise from sheep 
which stray here, of which there are some remaining in Nor- 
way, for one head hangs in Throndheim, and another in Ber- 
gen, and many others are to be found].* But there are bays, 
and the land stretches out toward the south-west; there are 
ice mountains, and bays, and islands lie out in front of the 
ice mountains ; one of the ice mountains cannot be explored, 
and the other is half a month's sail ; to the third, a week's 
sail. This is nearest to the settlement called Ilvidserk. 
Thence the land trends north; but he who desires to go 
by the settlement steers to the south-west. Gardar, the 
bishop's seat, is at the bottom of Ericsfiord; there is a church 
consecrated to holy Nicholas. There are twelve churches 
in the eastern settlement and four in the western. 

* The part inclosed in brackets is an interpolation of a re- 
cent date. 



America by the Northmen. 203 

Now it should be told what is opposite Greenland, out 
from the bay, which was before named. Furdustrandur ^ 
is the name of the land ; the cold is so severe that it is not 
habitable, so far as is known. South from thence is Hellu- 
land, which is called Skmellings land. Thence it is not far 
to Yinland the Good, which some think goes out to Africa.'^ 
Between Yinland and Greenland is Ginnungagah, which 
runs from the sea called Mare Oceanum^ and surrounds the 
whole earth.' 

' Not to be confounded with the place of the same name at 
Cape Cod. 

^ This is another passage upon which Bancroft absurdly 
depended to prove that the locality of Vinland was unknown, 
when in the Sagas the position is minutely described, the situ- 
ation being as well known as that of Greenland. See sketches 
designed to illustrate this statement in the Narrative and Criti- 
cal History, vol. I, pp. 1 1 7-132. 

' This may perhaps be viewed as an indication of the " north- 
west passage, ' ' whch in post-Columbian times was supposed 
to be a navigable body of water leading to the Pacific, though 
in this account the name Vinland is loosely applied, whereas 
Vinland lay south of Markland, the present Nova Scotia. 
The student should compare these geographical fragments 
with the geography of Orosius (A. D. 416), translated and 
improved by King Alfred the Great (Cir. 890), and found in 
the "Jubilee Edition" of his works, marking the one-thou- 
sandth year from his birth. London, 1858, vol. II, 17-61. 
Page 46 contains the only reference to Iceland, but Alfred 
speaks as though the country were well known at the time he 
made his translation. This translation is of special interest, 
as Alfred adds much knowledge belonging to his own time, 
and narrates the facts about Ohthere, the Northman, who was 
the most northern inhabitant of his race on the west coast of 
Norway, north of him being the Finns. Ohthere made a 
voyage, the first on record, around the north cape into the 
sea at the eastward. Gardar, the Dane, had seen Iceland in 
860. On Ohthere, see Hakluyt's "Navigations," vol. II, 
pp, 4-5. Neither Orosius nor Alfred could say more about the 



204 Pre-Columbian Discoveky of 

YII. LETTEES FROM THE YATICAN. 



The first of these documents is a letter of Pope Innocent 
III, bearing the date of February 13, 1206, being addressed 
to the Archbishop of Drontheim. It confirms his meiro- 
pohtan rights over the diocese of Greenland, recognized bj 
Pope Eugene III, in 1148. Regest Vat., vol. Ill, Ej). 214, 
fol. 65, V. It is written in a beautiful hand, and is illumi- 
nated. 

The following is the list of the actual Bishops of Green- 
land, so far as it can be made clear: Arnold, translated to 
Hammer, Norway; John I. 1150-1178; John II. 1188- 
1209; Helgo, 1212-1230; Nicholas, consecrated 1234, went 
to his See 1239; died 1240; Olaf, 1246-1271, and absent 
from his See about ten years ; Thorder, 1288-1314; Arnos, 
1315-1346 or 50; John III., but may not have reached 
Greenland ; Alfus, 1366, reached Greenland 1368 and died 
1378; Henry, 1386-1389; Berthold (O. St. Francis), 1401; 
Eskill, the last, 1410. Henry and Harold, without dates, 
between John I. and John II., doubtful. 

A series of Titular bishops followed, extending from 
1411 to 1519, numbering about seventeen, including Mat- 
thias, appointed 1492, by Alexander VI. These Bishops, 
except Matthias, all paid into the Papal treasury the dues 
supposed collectable from the See of Garder, in Green- 
land. Thus it will appear that Greenland was never out 
of the mind of the Popes, however infrequent may have 
been the actual communication. Torfeus, in his Green- 
landia, treats this subject, but for the fullest and most 
valuable study, see the Pev. Fr. De Poos' "America 
before Columbus," vol. II, chap. XX, and follomng. Its 
discussion is not called for in this work on the Sagas. 

southern part of Africa, than that a land of "barren, whirl- 
ing-sand " extended southward to the ocean. It is clear that 
they knew that Africa had been circumnavigated. 



America by the Northmen. 205 

I. 

'' Innocent III, to the Archbishop of Drontheim, and his 
canonicallj appointed successors in perpetuity : Though the 
power of binding and loosing was given to all, and although 
the same common command to preach the Gospel to every 
creature was laid upon all, a certain distinction of dignity 
was nevertheless decreed and only one received above all 
others the care of the Lord's sheep, in accordance with the 
Lord's words: Peter, dost thou love me? Feed my sheep. 
It was Peter also who attained to the pre-eminence above all 
the Apostles. He received a particular command from the 
Lord to confirm his brethren, that following generations 
might know that while many were ordained to govern the 
Church only one w^as to hold the supreme power, and be 
over all the others in authority and jurisdiction. Therefore, 
in accordance with this plan, a distinction of power is seen 
in the Church, and even as in the human body the various 
members thereof are intended for different uses, so in the 
Church different persons attain to different orders for differ- 
ent services. Some are set apart for particular churches 
and some are ordained to the rule of different cities, and the 
arrangement of different affairs. Others are set over certain 
provinces, others have jurisdiction over their brethren for 
the disposition of cases that relate to those under them. 
But over all these, the Koman Pontiff, like Noah in the 
ark, as holding the pre-eminence; for he, by virtue of 
the power granted to him from above in the person of the 
prince of the Apostles, judges and decides causes, and 
ceases not to establish in the Christain faith the sons of the 
church all over the world, by right seeking to prove that he 
has heard the voice of the Lord, saying: "And thou 
being once converted, confirm thy brethren. The Apostles 
and men who have risen in regular order to the government 
of the apostolic see since the blessed Peter, have likewise 
endeavored with unfailing zeal to perform the same, and 
either personally or by means of their legates have endeav- 
ored to their utmost to correct whatever needed correction 
and to decree what was required. Our predecessor of 



206 Pit E Columbian Discovery of 

happy memory, Pope Eugene, following in their footsteps, 
was desirous, in accordance with the obligations of Lis office, 
to amend in the kingdom of Norway all that seemed to 
demand amendment, by sowing the word of faith, and what 
he himself was unable to do, on account of his care of the 
universal Church, he entrusted for execution to his legate 
JSTicholas, then bishop of Albano and afterwards Roman 
pontiff, who, having gone to that country, loaned out, obedi- 
ent to tlie commands of his master, the talent he had 
received, and like a faithful and wise servant tried to derive 
an increase thereof. Among other thing which he achieved 
to the gloiy of God's name and his ministry, according as 
he had been ordered by our said predecessor, he bestowed 
the pallium upon thy predecessor John, and lest the prov- 
ince of Norway should lack the direction of a metropolitan 
he appointed the city of Nidras, now under thy charge, as 
the metropolitan See in perpetuity of the said province and 
gave to it as suffrage Sees in perpetuity Aslo, Amatrip, 
Bergen, Stavangri, the Orkney, Faroe, and Subraie islands, 
Iceland and Greenland, commanding the bishops of the 
same to obey him and his successors as their metropolitans. 
Lest any one should presume, however, to violate the order 
of the aforesaid legate, we, after the example of the afore- 
mentioned Eugene, of happy memory, of Alexander and of 
Clement, our predecessors and Roman pontiffs, confirm the 
same order by apostolic authority, and by this ordinance 
ordering that the city of Nidras be ever considered as the 
metropolitan See of the afore-mentioned cities; that their 
bishops are to obey thee and thy successors as their metro- 
politan, and to receive from thy hands the grace of conse- 
cration; that thy successors, however, are to come to the 
Roman pontiff alone, in order to receive the grace of con- 
secration, and that they are to be subject to the Roman 
Church alone. Besides, thy fraternity will use the pallium 
which has been given thee, the emblem of the fullness of 
the pontifical office, within church only during the solemn 
celebration of mass throughout thy whole province, and 
on those days only which are underwritten, viz., the Lord's 



America by the Northmen. 207 

nativity, the Epiphany, the Lord's Supper, the Resurrec- 
tion, Ascension and Pentecost, on the festivals of the blessed 
Mother of God, Mary, ever virgin; the feasts of Saints 
Peter and Paul, the finding and exaltation of the Holy 
Cross, the nativity of Saint John the Baptist, the feast of 
blessed John the Evangelist, on the commemoration of all 
saints, when consecrating churclies or bishops, blessing 
abbots or ordaining priests, on the anniversary of the con- 
secration of thy own church, the feasts of the Holy Trinity 
and of Saint Olaf and the anniversary of thy consecration. 
"Wherefore let thy fraternity do all things with diligence 
that the ornaments of thy administration may be in keeping 
with the fullness of the great dignity thou hast received. 
Let thy life be an example to all who are under thee, so 
that they may learn therefrom what they should seek after 
and what they are obliged to shun ; be distinguished for thy 
prudence, chasteness of thought, purity of conduct, discre- 
tion in silence, usefulness in speech. Endeavor rather to 
do good to men than to rule them. In thyself thou shouidst 
consider not the power of order, but the equality of thy 
condition. Take care lest thy life render void thy teach- 
ing or thy teaching prove in contradiction to thy conduct. 
Remember that the government of souls is the art of arts. 
Strive above all things to observe faithfully the decrees of 
the apostolic see, and humbly obey the same as thy mother 
and mistress. These, most beloved brother in Christ, are 
some among the many obligations which pertain to thy 
archiepiscopal and sacerdotal office, all of which thou canst 
easily perform with Christ's aid, provided that thou hast 
charity, which is the mother of all virtues, and humility, 
and that thou hast inwardly what thou seemest outwardly 
to have. 

Accordingly we decree, etc. , unto the end. 

Done in Rome, at Saint Peter's, by the hand of John, 
cardinal, deacon of Saint Mary's, in Cosmedin, chancellor 
of the holy Roman church, on the 13th day of February, 
the sixth indiction, in the year of the Lord's Incarnation 1205, 
and the 8th year of the pontificate of Pope Innocent HI. 



208 Pke-Columbian Discovert of 

II. 

Four letters from Pope John XXI to the archbishop of 
Drontheim, about tithes in Greenland for the Crusades, 
dated December 4, 1276. Johanis XXI, vol. 38, p. 23. 
Epis. 93-94. The first two of these letters are written on 
vellum, illuminated. 

About all that needs to be said, perhaps, on the tithes of 
Yineland. has been observed already. {Ante, p. 31). 
Gravier and Riant both speak as though there were positive 
proof of the collection of tithes for Crusades in Yineland, 
yet it is a matter of inference, reasonable inference, one 
might say. On every principle, the rule of the Bishop of 
Greenland extended to the islands and continental lands 
adjoining, and of the continuance of the voyages to Green- 
land and Yinland, during long periods, there can be no 
doubt. Bishop Helgo, 1212-30, was a special preacher of 
ihe Crusades, and from time to time soldiers who had been 
to Jerusalem, were seen in Greenland, and doubtless as well 
in Yinland or New England. 



John XXI to the archbishop of Drontheim : 

Having received, by apostolic brief, the commission to 
collect tithes in the kingdom of Norway for the Holy Land, 
and having been expressly commanded in the same brief 
to visit in person all the countries of the said kingdom for 
this purpose, thy fraternity informs us that such visitation 
seems in a measure impossible, for the diocese of Gardar, 
which belongs to thy province and kingdom, is so far from 
the metropolitan see and the difficulties of navigation are so 
great that five years are scarcely sufficient for the whole 
journey; therefore, thou hast reason to doubt whether the 
apostolic mandate or thine will reach the said country within 
the time named for the payment of the tithes. Therefore, 
thou hast had recourse to the wisdom of the Apostolic See 
for a remedy in this matter. We, therefore, in our desire 



America by the Northmen. 209 

that the collection of the tithes be carefully attended to, do 
wish and by apostolic letters command thy fraternity, the 
above facts being true, to appoint certain capable and faith- 
ful persons, regarding whom we charge thy conscience, who 
shall visit that country and shall supervise and diligently 
superintend the said collection. Thou shalt also carefully 
provide whatsoever shall seem desirable in the said matter, 
that thou mayest obtain thy reward of the Lord and merit 
for thyself more abundaEtly the favor of the apostolic see. 
Done at Yiterbo, December 4:th, in the first year. 



To the same: 

By apostolic brief you have received a commission to 
collect tithes in the kingdom of Korway for the Holy Land, 
and havino- been commanded in the same brief to visit in 
person all the countries of the said country for this purpose, 
but thy fraternity has informed us that several of the 
dioceses in that kingdom belonging to thy province are so 
widely scattered over the sea and so extensive in territory 
that it would be difficult for thee to visit personally all the 
districts of the said dioceses within a period of about six 
years and without heavy expense to thy see, and since thou 
wouldst have to journey some five or more seasons through 
countries where, because there are no dwellings, thou 
wouldst be obliged to carry tents, thou hast asked to be 
authorized to depute, notwithstanding the apostolic brief to 
the contrary, certain careful and capable commissaries to 
collect the tithes in the said countries. Wherefore, in order 
to spare thee and thy see such expense, we have concluded 
to allow thee, by tenor of these present, liberty to appoint 
such commissaries for the collection of tithes in the said 
diocese, in case the above be according to the facts, and if 
thou seest fit so to do, regarding which we charge thy con- 
science. We wish thee, nevertheless, to visit in person 
such of the aforesaid dioceses as may be possible, without 
great inconvenience, and to attend to the collection of the 
14 



210 Pke-Columbian Discovert of 

said tithes, that thou raayest expect a recompense from the 
Lord, whose work it is, and mayest more abundantly merit 
the favor of the apostolic see. 

Done at Yiterbo, December 4th, in the first year. 



3. 

To the same: 

Thou hast informed us that, owing to the great extent of 
the dioceses in the kingdom of Norway, wherein thou hast 
been appointed by apostohc letter collector of tithes for the 
relief of the Holy Land, the two collectors named, with 
apostolic permission, for every diocese, are not enough for 
the said work, nor can they perform the matter without 
inconvenience and very great cost. By the advice and with 
the assent of thy suffragans in the said kingdom, thou hast 
appointed for the rural districts of the different dioceses 
several other collectors, who by their own efforts and at 
their personal cost are to collect the tithes and then convey 
them to the two city collectors. Therefore, thou hast 
humbly besought us to regard the labor and cost to which 
these collectors put themselves and to grant them some 
relief; hence, as we desire that these rural collectors may 
gain some advantage from their labors and expense, we 
grant them the indulgence which has been accorded to those 
who by their labors and co-operation further the cause of 
the Holy Land. 

At Yiterbo, December 4th, in the first year. 



4. 
To the same: 

Thou hast informed us that in the kingdom of !N'orway, 
where thou hast been entrusted with the collection of tithes 
for the Holy Land, the current money is so debased as to 
be of no value outside the boundaries of the kingdom, and 
that in some parts of the aforesaid kingdom money is not 
in use, also no crops are cultivated, and no fruits are grown, 



America by the ]^orthmen. 211 

the people living almost entirely upon milk, cheese and fish; 
therefore, thou hast humbly requested us to tell thee what 
thou shalt do with the tithes drawn from the aforesaid milk, 
cheese, fish and money. Therefore, in our thought that 
whatever is most profitable to be done in this matter, we 
think it would be well, if the statement be exact, to exchange 
so far as practicable all such coin and tithes for silver and 
gold. In regard to the nuns and other religious orders of 
the kingdom whose incomes and ecclesiastical revenues are 
so small as to be insufficient for their support, thou canst 
proceed according to that which has been set forth fuller in 
the declarations relating to this collection of tithes. 
Done at Yiterbo, December 4:th, first year. 



III. 



A letter from Pope Nicholas III, of January 31, 1279, 
to the Archbishop of Drontheim, about tithes in Greenland. 
Nicholas III, to his venerable brother, the Archbishop of 
Drontheim : 

"We have learned from thy letters to us, that the island on 
which the city of Gardar is located is not often visited by 
ships, on account of the storms of the ocean where it is 
situated. Lately, therefore, when certain sailors went to 
the said island to the said city, thou didst take advantage of 
the opportunity to send in the company of the said sailors, 
a careful person, whom thou didst appoint collector of the 
tithes. Depending upon our approbation thou didst 
empower him to absolve clerics from the pain of excom- 
munication which had fallen upon them, on account ot non- 
payment of tithes within the ordered time, and to release 
them from whatever irregularity they may have committed. 
Therefore, thou hast humbly requested us to grant our 
gracious approval. But since we cannot favorably assent to 
this desire because it is not based on reason, and desiring, 
on this account, to comply with thy wislies by applying a 
ready remedy for perils to souls, we hereby empower thee 



212 Pbe-Coltjmbian Discovery of 

to give to those whom thou hast sent or may send in the 
future to the said islands to absolve clerics, whether in the 
aforementioned islands or others in the same ocean from 
the aforesaid sentence according to the order of the Church, 
and to dispense them from irregularity of this kind. 
Done at Rome, at Saint Peter's, January 31, 1279. 



IV. 

From Pope Nicholas II, to Master Bertrand Arnabiie, 
June 9, 1279, relating to wine and altar bread, for the 
churches in Greenland. 
" Nicholas III, to the said Master Bertrand Arnabrie: 

We have recently been told by thee that certain revenues 
have been apportioned by the devotion of the faithful 
in the cathedral churches of Denmark and Sweden for 
the express purpose of buying wine and altar bread for the 
clergy of the churches within the said kingdom. Since, 
however, thou hast consulted the Apostolic See in regard to 
whether tithes ghould be taken from revenues of this kind, 
while approving thy diligence, we do by apostolic letter 
leave the question to thy judgment, in order that, if the 
revenues be so large that thou art sure that a large sum will 
be left over after providing wine and altar bread, we wish 
that tithes be paid on that part. On the other hand, if 
little or nothing is left of the said revenues, nothing is to 
be paid out of regard for reverence for adoration and the 
sacrament of the Lord. 

Done in Rome, at Saint Peter's, June 9, 1279." 



A letter of Pope Martin TV, to the Archbishop of Dron- 
theim, March 4, 1281, in relation to the peltry and whale- 
bone furnished as tithes by the people of Greenland. 
" Martin IV, to the Archbishop of Drontheim: 



AmEKICA by the ISToRTHMEN. 213 

Thy fraternity hast informed us that the tithes being paid 
in Iceland and the Faroe Islands in the kingdom of Nor- 
way, are composed of various commodities that cannot 
easily be exchanged or sold, on which account the same 
cannot readily be sent to Holy Land or to the Apostolic See. 
Thou hast said, also, that the only tithes that can be gathered 
in Greenland are composed of skins of the elk or the musk 
ox or of seals, teeth ropes of whales, which by your account, 
cannot be sold for any fair price. Therefore, thou hast 
desired instructions of the apostolic see as to what course 
you should take in this case. Therefore, while we admire 
thy pious care, we reply to the question as follows: Thou 
must seek to exchange the tithes of Greenland and the other 
islands as you best may, for either silver or gold and for- 
ward the same as soon as possible, together with other tithes 
collected in the kingdom for the succour of Holy Land, 
truly informing us in regard to the nature and the amount 
of what thou dost send. "We also write to our most dear 
son in Christ, the renowned king of Norway, requesting 
him not to prevent or permit any one to prevent the free 
exportation from his dominion of the tithes which are 
devoted, as the Apostolic See shall deem iStting to the succour 
of the said Holy Land, and to seek to repeal the order 
decreed aganist clerics of said kingdom, that forbids any 
layman of the kingdom selling easterlings or other silver. 

Done at Orvieto, March 4, 1281. 



VI. 

A letter from Pope Nicholas Y, September 20, 1448, to 
the Bishop of Skalholt and Eolar in Iceland, respecting the 
church in Greenland. 

The suggestion that this letter never reached its destina- 
tion, based on the statement that voyages to Iceland were 
rare at this period, has no support in fact. In 1448 the 
traffic between England and Iceland had reached such pro- 
portions that the King of Denmark felt concerned, and 



214 Pre-Columbian Discovekt of 

obliged the King of England in 1450, to reduce the fleet 
to two ships. The English were getting the better part of 
the trade, which was claimed by Denmark. See Ante^ 
p. 55. 



*' Nicholas, etc., to om* venerable brothers. Bishop of 
Skalholt and Bishop of Holar, Health, etc. : 
By virtue of the apostolic charge given to us from on 
high, in directing the affairs of the universal church, it is 
our care, in God's name, to secure the salvation of souls 
purchased by the precious blood of our Saviour, not only 
by stilling the storms of irreligion and error which sweep 
over them, but also by protecting them when subject to mis- 
fortunes and whirlwinds of persecution. From the natives 
and from dwellers in Greenland, an island said to be found 
in the most distant parts of the ocean ofi the northern coasts 
of the kingdom of Norway, in the province of Drontheim, 
a sorrowful cry has come to our ears and saddened our heart. 
These people, nearly six hundred years ago, received the 
Faith from the lips of their glorious apostle, the blessed 
King Olaf , and kept it unchanged and pure, in obedience 
to the laws of the holy Roman Church and the Apostolic 
See. After a time animated by unfailing devotion, they 
built many churches besides a fine cathedral, in which the 
worship of God was faithfully carried on until within thirty 
years, by the permission of Him who, in his incomprehen- 
sible wisdom and knowledge, afflicts those whom He loves to 
make them perfect, barbarous people irom the neighboring 
heathen shores sent ships to invade the island. The land 
was laid waste with fire and sword, churches were every- 
wliere destroyed in all the island, said to be of vast extent. 
Only nine parish churches escaped, for the reason that being 
built among the mountains they could not well be reached. 
Many of the unhappy people of both sexes, who seemed 
strong to bear the yoke of lasting slavery, and by reason of 
physical strength appearing best suited for the labors of 
their masters, were carried away as prisoners. Neverthe- 



America by the Northmen. 215 

less, the same adds, that, after a time, many of them 
returned to their native country; and having in various 
places rebuilt what the invaders liad destroyed, they wished 
to establish the worship of God and restore its former 
splendor. Nevertheless, the misfortunes endured had left 
them in such a starving and necessitous condition, that they 
had no means of supporting a bishop and priests, and unless 
in their desire for Divine worship they could perform a jour- 
ney of a number of days to the churches that had survived 
the destruction of the barbarians, they were without the 
comforts of a pastor and the services of priests for thirty 
years. Therefore, they have most humbly besought us, 
that, in our paternal pity we would give them aid in satis- 
fying their devout and beneficial desires ; also that we would 
condescend to meet the supply of their spiritual needs and 
exhibit our benevolence and that of the Apostolic See in 
this case. Therefore, moved by the proper and rightful 
prayers and wishes of the aforesaid natives and dwellers in 
Greenland, and not having perfect knowledge of the above 
facts and circumstances, we do, by apostolic letters, com- 
mand one or both of you, whom we understand to be neigh- 
boring bishops, after having carefully investigated and 
comprehended the statements made above, to learn if it be 
true. If this is the state of things and if you find the popu- 
lation increased in number and resources to render the ful- 
fillment of their desires expedient, it is our will that you 
ordain suitable priests of holy life and furnish rectors for 
the administration of the parishes that have been restored 
and churches for the administration of the sacraments. In 
addition, if to one or both of you it may seem timely and 
expedient, having sought the advice of the metropolitan, if 
the distance allows, we empower you to appoint and order 
as bishop for them some profitable and qualified person in 
communion with us and the Apostolic See, to consecrate, 
with the customary form of the church, in our name, and 
give to him the administration of spiritual and temporal 
things, first receiving from him the proper and usual oath 
of allegiance to us and the Apostolic See. Having made 



V 



216 Pee-Columbian Discovery of 

this a matter of consceince, we by our apostolic authority, 
give to one or both of you full and unrestricted jurisdiction 
in this case, according to the tenor of these presents all 
statutes and constitutions, whether apostolic or of general 
councils, or of any other kind whatsoever, notwithstanding. 
Done at Rome, at Saint Potencianas', in the year fourteen 
hundred and forty-eight, twelfth day before the Kalends of 
October, the second year of our pontificate. ' ' 



VII. 



A letter of Pope Alexander YI, 1492-1493, by which he 
appointed Matthias, a monk of Saint Benedict, to the Bish- 
opric of Garder, Greenland. The entire volume, 492 pages, 
is of paper, and the documents seem to have been written 
carelessly by a rapid hand, except a few by a firm and 
careful hand in an older style. We have placed Matthias 
with the titular bishops, yet such was not the intention. 
Matthias was fully resolved upon the mission. 

" We learn that the church of Goder [Garder] situated 
on the outer boundaries of the world, in the country of 
Greenland, whose inhabitants are accustomed to live upon 
dried fish and milk, for the reason that bread, wine and oil 
are scarce, and for the reason that voyages are rarely made 
to that region, on account of the freezing of the sea no ship 
is supposed to have touched there during the past eighty 
years. We are also informed, that voyages of this kind are 
not thought possible except in the month of August, after 
the ice melts, and that no resident bishop or priest has ruled 
the Church for some eighty years past. Therefore, on 
account of the lack of priests, it has come to pass that very 
many of the people of that diocese, who were formerly Catho- 
lics, have, alas ! denied the sacred baptism they had received. 
It is said that the people of that land have no other relic of 
the Christian religion than a corporal that they exhibit once 
a year, upon which the body of Christ was consecrated by 
the last priest who was resident one hundred years ago. On 



America by the Northmen. 217 

account of these and other reasons, our predeceesor, Pope 
Innocent YIII, of happy memory, desiring to furnish an 
able and meritorious pastor for the said church, so long 
deprived of that consolation, agreeable to the advice of his 
brethren, of whom we were one, nominated to the said see, our 
venerable Brother Matthias, a professed member of the Order 
of Saint Benedict and now bishop elect of Gader [Gardar] 
having been preconised on our motion, before an election. 
In his intense zeal for those who had fallen away for 
the recovery of those who have lapsed, and for the suppres- 
sion of error, he has now resolved to set out upon this most 
dangerous undertaking. "While greatly commending, in 
the Lord, his holy and meritorious design, we wish to aid 
him in some means on account of his poverty. Therefore, 
on our own doing, cognisance and by the advice and consent 
of our brethren, we direct, under penalty of excommunica- 
tion, to follow ipso facto, our beloved sons, the copyists, 
abriviators, solicitors, with the holders of seals, and the regis- 
terator, and all other officials in the various offices, both of 
the chancery and apostolic chamber, to forward and to have 
forwarded promptly and entirely free of charge, all apos- 
tolic letters concerning the advancement to the aforesniJ 
church of Gader [Gardar] which need to be sent to the said 
bishop elect. Moreover, by the same, with similar cog- 
nisance and similar penalties, to be visited upon those who 
incur, who fail to obey, and everything to the contrary not- 
withstanding, we command the clerics and notaries of the 
apostolic chamber to give to the said bishop all such briefs and 
bulls without payment or requirement of any tax or any fees 
or gratuities ordinarily paid on similar accounting. Let all 
be done free in all the departments, because he is very poor. ' ' 



On these documents consult the Kev. Fr. Franz Ehrle, 
S. J. Frieburg, 1894: " Der Historische Gehalt derpapst- 
lichen Abtheilung auf der Weltanstellung von Chicago." 

Also, " Compte Rendu Congres Scientifique International 
des Catholiques, 1891." Paris, Ricard 82 Rue Bounforte. 



218 Pke-Columbian Discoveky of 

P. A. Munchs' " Pavilaye IS'imtiers Eegnskabs-og Dogs- 
boger," Christiana, 1864, gives various letters bj a Scan- 
dinavian bishop, order a collection of tithes for the Cru- 
sades, in Greenland, dated Aug, 30, 1326, p. 173. 

Valuable notes on these letters made by the author at the 
Vatican, have, he deeply regrets, disappeared. Translations 
are the work of others. 



VIII. THE BULL OF GREGOEY IV., 834. 



The imperial rescript to which this Bull refers begins: 
*' In the name of our God and Saviour Jesus Christ, Louis, 
by Divine permission and grace Emperor," and ends: 
" Given the Ides of May in the twenty-first year of the 
Emperor Louis' reign, in the Royal Palace of Aguis in the 
name of God, Amen, A. D. 834." It speaks of rule among 
the people " in the northern portions of the continent, 
namely, among the Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Farians, 
Greenlanders, Helsingers, Icelanders, Scritifinlanders and all 
the tribes in those northern parts, inasmuch as a great mul- 
titude has been converted from one place or another to the 
faith of Christ." His plan, therefore, was to erect the 
entire region into an arch-diocese, which was done by 
Gregory. Greenland, it will be noticed, is located in the 
northern part of the continent of Europe, yet it was learned 
only in modern times that Greenland was entirely discon- 
nected. The Zeno map, and all the ancient Italian maps, 
made Greenland a part of Europe, connecting it by a neck 
of land extending through the north. This was the repre- 
sentation in the Geography of Ptolemy, published in 1486. 
Columbus and all men of that period were perfectly familiar 
with this delineation, not dreaming that Greenland was part 
of a great world at the west. See on this Bull, the valuable 
discussion of De Roo: "America before Columbus, " vol. 
II, chap. III. This Bull is found in Pontanus' Rerum 
J)a/nicarum Historia^ etc., pp. 97-98. 



America ey the I^okthmex. 219 

Gregory, Bishop, servant of the servants of God ; to all 
the faithful be it known, that the most excellent Emperor 
Charles, in the time of our ancestors, being influenced by 
inspiration of the Divine Spirit, subdued the race of tlie 
Saxons to the Christian religion, and imposed upon them 
Christ's yoke, which is easy; and that he subdued the tierce 
hearts as far as the boundaries of the Danes or Slavi, by 
the sword; and that, in order that the part of the Empire 
lying beyond the Elbe might not, lying as it did between 
great perils, go back to the heathen religion, or perhaps 
because it seemed best adapted to the care of nations yet to 
be gained over, he so decreed to establish it by his own 
imperial authority. But death having hindered his plans, 
his son and most excellent successor, Louis the august 
Emperor, effectually carried out his father's wishes, which 
cause is to be confirmed to us by the venerable Racobfius 
or Yernoldus, Bishop or Count Geroldus. Therefore, all 
of us recognising in all this an appointment worthy of 
Divine Providence, and also instructed by the presence of 
our good Brother Ansgar, the first bishop of the Nordal- 
bingians, consecrated by the hands of Deago Mateasis 
Bishop, and the holy seal of honored emperors, both by 
these presents and by the delivery of the Episcopal Pallium, 
according to the ancient custom of our forefathers, have 
resolved to confirm by whatsoever valid authority we pos- 
sess, the said Ansgarius and his successors in ofiice, in order 
that in winning over the nations they may be the more 
mighty against the wiles of the Devil, and they are hereby 
appointed over Legates Apostolic among all the nations 
round about — the Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Faroese, 
Greenlanders, Helsingers, Icelanders, Slavi, as also all the 
northern and eastern nations of whatever name they may 
be called, and resting head and heart upon the body of the 
faith of Saint Peter, we give them public authority to 
preach the Gospel, and to occupy the Episcopal See itself. 
"We decree that the See of the Nordalbingians, called Ham- 
burg, shall be consecrated in honor of the Saviour and His 
Immaculate Mother as an Archi-episcopal See. And until 



220 Pee-Columbian Discovery of America. 

the number of bishops shall be increased, we commit the 
consecration of bishops, provieionallj, to the care of the 
Palatinate. But let the person elected for so great an office 
and apt thereto, always be that of an earnest preacher, 
that we do by our authority confirm and establish his pious 
wishes and vows; and everyone who shall resist or gainsay^ 
or in any way counteract these auspicious desires, we do 
smite with the sharp edge of our anathema and adjudge the 
guilty by perpetual vengeance to the doom of devils, accord- 
ing to the manner of predecessors in office ; and being zealous 
with pious effort, do all the more safely defend the Apos- 
tolic See against all adversaries. 

And forasmuch, most beloved Ansgar, the Divine Grace 
has inclined thee in this new See to accept the office of an 
archbishop, we do hereby transmit the pallium for your 
celebration of the mass, which we authorize you to wear 
during your lifetime. 

May it please the most Holy Trinity long to spare your 
life, and after the bitterness of this transitory state may you 
obtain eternal felicity. Amen. Datum, 835. 



INDEX. 



Abassades, The., 61 

Abbott, 134, n. 2. 

Adam of Bremen, 106, n. 3, 

171. 
Adzer, Archbishop, 27, 184. 
A<?amemnoii, 12. 
^lian, 10. 
Africa, 11. 
Agassiz, Prof., 98, n. 125, 

71. 5. 

Alcock, Robert, 57. 

Alexander, 11, 33, 216. 

Alexandria, 199. 

Alfred, King, 49, 203, n. 3. 

Alfonso, King, 49. 

Alps, 200. 

Allefousce, 112, n., 183, n. 2. 

America, 6-9. 

America, De Roo's, 218. 

Amund, Bishop, 38. 

Anderson, E., 49, n., 59, n. 2. 

Andalusia, 11. 

Andre, 30, 32. 

Anndlar, 52, n. 

Annales Islandormn Regii, 

37, 48. 
Annales Regii, 188; Flatey- 

enses, 181; Reseniini, 

181. 
Ansgar, 219. 
Anson, Lord, 43. 
Antioch, 198. 
Antiquitates Americanae, 25, 

n., 36, 71, 1, 97, n. 5. 
Apostogon Hills, 97, n. 
Apostles, 205. 
Arthur, King, 24, n. 



Archaeologia, Americana, 88, 

n. 
Arnabrie, 212. 
Archer, 100, 7i. 3. 
Argyle, Marquis of, 68, n. 
Aristotle, 11. 
Arnald, Bishop, 29, 184. 
Arnold, Gov. Benedict, 73, n. 
Arnbiorn, 172. 
Arnbiorn, The Eastman, 185. 
Arthur, 24, n. 
Asbrand, 167, 170. 
Asia Minor, 199. 
Assonet Neck, 70, 7%. 
Athelstane, 41. 
Atlantis, 11. 
Avalldania, 138, 147. 
Azore, Islands, 164, n. 

Babjlon, 199. 

Bacaloa, Islands of, 182, n. 

Balder, 128, n. 

Ball's River, 40. 

Bancroft, George, 7, 68, n., 

201, n. 1, 64, n. 1. 
Bardarson, Ivar, 28-35. 
Barbarosa, 171. 
Bartholomew, the Apostle, 

198. 
Benedict, Saint, 217. 
Beacon, Mr. Joseph, 119, n. 
Beamish, 136, 7i. 1. 
Bede, the Venerable, 25. 
Bergen, 52. 
Bellinger, 112, n. 
Behaim, 199, ti. 
Bethencourt, 14. 



[221] 



222 



Index. 



Bible, Gnyot, 51. 

Biarne, Heriulfson, 65, 89, 

95, 139. 
Boerne, of Kamb, 167. 
Bishops, list of in Greenland, 

204. 
Bible, Guyot, 51, n. 
Biarne, Bishop, 148. 
Blarney, Isle, 140. 
Biorn, Asbrandson Breidavl- 

king, 169; exiled, 170; 

returns, 172; goes 

abroad, 177. 
Blfesark, 87. 
Black Hoof, 165. 
Blue Hills, 137, n. 2, 143, 

n. 3. 
BoUandists, 25, n. 2. 
Bonaparte, 154, n. 
Bork, the Fat, 167. 
Boston Harbor, 112, n. 
Bougainville, 12. 
Bory, de St. Vincent, 14. 
Bradford, 28, n. 2, 100, n. 
Brand, Bishop, 160. 
Brattahlid, 27, QQ, 122. 
Brereton, 98, n. 
Bristol, 56. 

Brown, Maiie A., 60, n. 1. 
Broughton, 16. 
Brun, Malte, 74, n. 
Bulls, Papal, 26. 
Brj'niiilfson, Dr. 34. 
Buzzard's Bay, 101, n. 124, 

n. 4. 
Byggeman, William, 54. 

Cabot, 6, 61, 113, n. 
Cadiz, 12. 
Canaria, 13. 
Canary Islands, 12. 
Canute, 171. 
Canynges, 55. 

Cape Cod, 16, 50, 98, 108, n., 
old ship at, 98. 



Cape Sable, 97, n. 
Cape Malabar, 101. 
Caprari, 13. 
Cartier, 83, n. 
Chaplains, 14. 
Cinnamon, 106, n. 
Chatham, 100, n. 
Charles, 11, 68, n. 
Chingwank, 70, n. 
Christianity, in Iceland, 82, 

n. 2; Greenlend, 95, 

n. 2. 
Christinia, Ships at, 44, n. 
Charlemange, 10. 
Chaucer, 57. 
Christian, II, 39. 
Christian III, 39. 
Christ, 144. 
Christophersen, Claudius, 25, 

162. 
Claudian, 17. 
Chronos, 9. 

Clarendon, Lord, 64, n. 
Clarke, Dr., 60, n. 1. 
Cleasby, 104, n. 
Cock Lane Ghost, 68. 

ColiBUS, 11. 

Corporal, 216. 

Columbus, 6, 33, 39, 56, 58, 

59, n. 1, 60. 
Congress, 30. 
Constantinople, 40, 200. 
Grantor, 11. 
Crantz, 29, n. 4, 39. 
Cronica General de Espana, 

49. 
Crusades, 31, 208. 
Crossness, 114, 121. 
Cuba, 59, n. 1. 
Culdees, 22. 
Cuchalin, Saga of, 134, n. 

Dagmalstad, 1C2, n. 
Danforth, Dr., 70, n. 
Davis, 40, n. 3. 



Index. 



223 



Darien, Isthmus of, 163. 

Daseiit, 40, 62, n. 1, 102, n. 

Deane, Dr., 61. 

De Barros, 14, n. 2. 

De Fries, Rev., 34. 

De Koo Fr., 204, 218. 

Dicuil, 25. 

Dighton Rock, 70, n. 

Diman, Prof., 69, n. 1. 

Disco, 93, n. 1, 124, n. 4. 

Discrepancies, in Sagas, 95, 

n. 1. 
Donsk tunga, 19. 
Doomsday Book, 49, 73, 195. 
Dropstock, 90, n. 
Drift-wood, 80, n. 
Drogeo, 55. 

Dublin, 139, 148, n. 180. 
Dudley, Lieut. Gov., 102, 

n. 2. 
Dungannon, Lord, 18, n. 

Eddas, 50. 

Earth, brief description of, 
198. 

Easton, Peter, 73, n. 

Edward III, 14, n. 2, 52. 

Edward IV, 57. 

Egede, Rev. Hans, 39, n., 
136, n. 1. 

Egypt, 199. 

Einarsfield,-33. 

Einar, son of Sokke, 29. 

Eindridesuden, the ship, 1 82. 

Elysium, 11. 

English, 51. 

Eric, Bishop, 181. 

Eric, the Red, 15, 25; goes 
to Greenland, 82, 87; re- 
solves to seek new land, 
87; banished, 87; his 
children, 90 ; accident, 
96; baptised, 110. 

Ericson, Thorvald, 30 ; goes to 
Vinland, 110; his death, 



114; Thorstein sails for 
Viniand, 115; returns, 
110; his death, 117. 

Ehrle, Fr., 217. 

Eric, Bishop Upse, 181. 

Erlandson, 21, 121. 

Esquimaux, 134, n. 3. 

Estotiland, 55, 110, n. 

Eugene III, 31, 206. 

Eyktarstad, 102. 

Eyrbyggia Saga, 166. 

Everett, Edward, 60. 

Feather Islands, 181. 

Fenris, 128, n. 4. 

Festivals, 206, 

Finboge, 154. 

Fate, 96. 

Fish, Sacred, 130. 

Florida, 165, n. 

Forsark, Thorkel, swims for 
a sheep, 94. 

Foster-father, 106, n. 

Fossils, 96, n. 2. 

Fragments, geographical, 180. 

France, 182. 

Frederic, II, 39. 

Frederic, bishop, 79. 

Frey, 125, n. 

Freydis, 67, 133; sails for 
Yinland, 154 ; quarrels 
with the company, 153; 
murders the brothers and 
their company, 157; re- 
turns to Greenland, 157. 

Frisius, 5-6. 

Frithiof 's Saga, 21, ?*., 122, n. 

Frobisher, 40, 7i. 

Froude, 58. 

Erode, 21, ^i. 2, 49, 169. 

Fuerteventura, 19. 

Fort, of JSToronebega, 76, n. 

Galdrakin, Thorgrim, 174. 
Gardar, 19, 29, 33, 211. 



224: 



Index. 



Gaspe, Indians of, 74. 

Geoo;raphical Fragments, 198. 

Geoffrey, of Monmouth, 23. 

Geis, 134, n. 1. 

Genesis, 199, 7i. 1. 

Ginnimgagah, 201. 

Girava, 56. 

Gisli, the Outlaw, 86, n. 

Gissur, the "White, 28, n. 1, 
175. 

Glacial man, 113, n. 

Globe, of Rouen, 56. 

Globe, Lenox, 59, n. 2, 200, 
n. 2. 

Gnupson, Bishop Eric, 29. 

Goodrich, 59, n. 2. u 

Godthaab, 28. 

Gode, 167, n. 

Goe, Month of, 79. 

Gomera, 14. 

Gornbornese-Skare, 78, n. ; 
see Gunnbiorn's Rocks. 

Gosnold, 98, n. 1, 126, 
n. 1. 

Gould, Sabine-Baring, 47, n. 

Graah, Captain, 28. 

Grainmaticus, Saxo, 50, 71, n. 

Grapes, 106, 115. 

Gravier, Gabriel, 59, n. 1, 
208. 

Greenland, rediscovery of, 
23 ; progress of, 27 ; trib- 
utary to Norway, 28; 
church organized in, 29; 
monuments and ruins, 
33; explorations in, 36; 
decline of, 37; lost 
Greenland found, 39 ; 
Queen Margaret prohib- 
its trade, 39; Christi- 
anity introduced, 27, 110, 
206; 218. 

Grettir, Saga, 47, n., 96, 

71.3. 

Grimhild, 117. 



Grimolfson, Biarne, 138; lost 

in the Worm Sea, 139, 

148. 
Gripla, 198. 
Gudlaag, 177. 
Gudleif, 177; carried to sea, 

178. 
Gudrid, 66, 84, n. ; second 

marriage, 115, 123, 148; 

goes to Vinland, 124, 

149 ; goes to Rome, 159, 

n. ; her relations with 

Leif, 160, n. 1. 
Guiscard, Roger, 40, n. 1. 
Gwyneth, Oweo, 17, n. 
Gunnbiorn, 65, 78; his rocks, 

77, 78, n. 2; money 

found at, 79. 
Gregory IV, 25, 26, 162, 

218, 219. 

Hafgerdingar, 90, 93. 

Hake, 126, 141. 

Hakia, 126, 141. 

Haldor, 36. 

Halifax, 97. 

Hallbera, Fru, Abbess of 

Stad, 153. 
Halle, 195. 

Hakluyt, 24, n. 2, 37, n. 4. 
Haddon, John de, 49. 
Harvard University, 30, n. 
Harfagr, Harold, 19. 
Hardicanute, 41. 
Harold, 22, 41, 48. 
Harvard College, 70, n. 
Head-brink, 172, 7i. 
Head, Sir Edmund, 44, n., 

49, 7i. 
Hebrides, 93, 167. 
Heimdal, 128, n. 2. 
Heimskringla, 41, 49, 45, 

46. 
Hercules, Pillars of, 10. 
Hela, 125, 71. 2. 



Index. 



225 



Helge, sailed for Yinland, 

155; murdered, 156. 
Helluland, 97, 125, 141. 
Henry VI, 54. 
Henry, of Portugal, 14. 
Henningsou, Magnus, 39. 
Heriulfson, Biarne, 89; goes 

to Norway, 89; goes to 

Greenland, 90; sees new 

land, 91. 
Hermund, 193. 
Herodotus, 11. 
Hesperides, 12. 
Hey wood, J. C, 30. 
Hialte, 28, n. 1, 109. 
Hiatus, 112, n. 
Hirdis, Rismal, 103, n. 
History, ]N^ar. and Crit., 63, n. 
Historiske Mindesmserker, 

Gronland's, 81, 89. 
Hoby, 50. 
Homer, 50. 
Honey Dew, 100, n. 
Hop, 127-143; see Mt Hope. 
Hopi, 130, n. 1, 145. 
Holy Land, 210, 213. 
Holar, Bishop of, 214. 
Horn, 49, n. 
Horsehead, Thord, 122, 148, 

160, n. 1. 
Horsford, Prof. E. N., 43, 

n., 75, n., 76, n. 
Horsford, Miss Cornelia, 75, 

n., 76, n. 
Hortado, 136, n. 1. 
Howitt, W. and M., 99, n. 
Hume, 24, 155. 
Husasnotru, 158, n. 3. 
Hvalso, 91. 

Humboldt, 11, 50, 57. 
Hvalsoiiord, 91. 
Hudson, Henry, 25, 136, n. 1. 
Hvidserk, 202. 
Hymn to Thor, 128. 
Hyde, 24, n. 1, 134, n. 1. 
15 



Iceland, discovery, 19; col- 
onization, 20; birds of 
20; mammalia, 20; date 
of manuscripts, 45; lit- 
erature of, 47; the Saga- 
men, 44; the Eddas, 50; 
English in, 51. 

Iduna, 128, n. 

Igalliko, 33. 

Innocent III, 31, 205. 

Innocent VIII, 38, 55. 

Inventio Fortunata, 24, n.j 
53, n. 

Ireland, 145. 

Ireland, the Great, 26, 111, 
n. 2, 163. 

Irish, 16, 37, n., 45. 

Irish Monks, 22; books, bells 
and croziers of, 22, 165. 

Islands, Blessed, 12. 

Island, the, 98, 142. 

Isle of Currents, 127; Nauset, 
100, n. 1, 101, 127, n.\ 
of Sable, 125, n. 

Isles, of America, 16; of the 
Blessed, 12; British, 11. 

Jardar, 23. 
Jerusalem, 198. 
John, the Apostle, 198. 
John, XXI, Pope, 31. 
Johnson, Biorn, 121. 
Johnson, Dr., 68. 
Jomsberg, Vikings, 170. 
Jon Greenlander, 38. 
Jones, Inigo, 74, n. 
Juba II, 12, 13. 
Julian's Hope, 34. 
Juno, Temple of, 14. 
Junonia, 13. 
Jupiter, 128, n. 
Jorsalfari, 184. 

Kalbein, 189. 

Kalbrunar skald. Thormod , 78. 



226 



Index. 



Kanitsok, 72. 

Karkortok, 33, 72. 

Karlsefne, Thornfinn, Q6>, 
119, n.; goes to Green- 
land, 122; marriage, 123, 
145; sails for Vinland, 
124, 149; sails past 
Wonderstrand, 126, 138; 
trades, 132, 150; battle 
with natives, 133; re- 
turns to Greenland, 137; 
goes to Iceland, 148, 153, 
family line, 148. 

Karlsefne, Snorre, 137, 151. 

Kendal, A. E., 71, n. 

Kennebec, 137. 

Keyser, Prof., 83, n. 

Kialarness, 108, 141, n. 

Kiarten, 170, 172, 179. 

King, Christian II, 39; 
Christian III, 39 ; Fred- 
eric II, 39; Harold, 41; 
Juba II, 13; Olaf the 
Saint, 41; Olaf Trygg- 
vesson, 41; his swim- 
ming match, 41 ; ship of, 
42. 

Kingsborough, 15. 

Krage, Ulf,"23. 

Kroksfiardarheidi, 36. 

Labrador, 88, n. 

Laing, 41, 43, 70, n. 

Lake, 130; houses built at, 

131. 
Lancerote, 14. 
Landa-Kolf, 182. 
Landanaina Book, 25, 70, 

162. 
Llangollen, 17, n. 
Lancaster, Sound of, 36. 
Law of Matrimony, 156, n. 2. 
Leamington, 73. 
Lcclerc, Father, 75, n. 
Lescarbot, 113, n. 



Ledehammar, 42. 

Leif, 27, 61, 85, goes to 
Vinland, 94, returns to 
Greenland, 103 ; finds 
shipwrecked sailors, 107; 
sent to proclaim Chris- 
tianity in Greenland, 
107; his Booths, 111, 
149, n. ; his judgment on 
Freydis, 158 ; the Lucky, 
109. 

Lelewell, 199, 7i. 3. 

Leo XIII, 30. 

Literature of Iceland, 47; 
Anglo-Saxon, 49 ; of 
France, 49 ; Castilian, 49. 

Lizards, 14. 

Lodge, Henry Cabot, 107, n. 

Logman's Annall, 181, n. 3. 

Loke, 128, n. 2. 

Long Serpent, 42. 

Louis, Emperor, 27, 218. 

Lynn, Nicholas of, 24, n. 2. 

Madoc, 18, n. 

Machin, Kobert, 14, n. 2. 

Madeira, 14. 

Madr, 71, n. 

Mary, Virgin, 207, 219. 

Maelstrom, 90, n. 

Magnus, King, 36. 

Magnus, Olaus, 31, 39, 104. 

Magnussen, Prof. Finn, 37, 

57, 102, n. 3, 73, 93, n. 

2, 161. 
Magnolia, 119, n., 136, n. 1. 
Maine, 55, n. 
Major, 13, 14. 
Make Brun, 74, n. 
Manamoyake Bay, 100, n. 
Manuscripts, date, 45. 
Manvel, Juan, 49. 
Man, 168. 
Mar, 176. 
Margaret, Queen, 38, 39. 



Index, 



227 



Mauro, Fra, 199, n. 3. 

Martin IV, Pope, 32, 212. 

Markland, 97, 125. 

Mars, Vigdis, 34. 

Marson, Are, 26, 162. 

Martha's Vineyard, 108, n. 
126, n. 

Massachusetts, 108, n. 

Mass. Hist. So., 62, n. 

Massur Wood, 158. 

Mather, Dr. Cotton, 118, n. 
2, 136, n., 151, n. 3. 

Matthias, 33, 216. 

Mathieson, 34. 

May, John, 54, 58. 

Mauritania, 12. 

Merry Mount, 99, n. 3. 

Mexico, 15. 

Milesieus, 16, n. 

Mill, Newport, 69, 73; Ches- 
terton, 73. 

Mindesmoerker, Greenland's 
81, 89. 

Minor Narratives, 162. 

Missionaries, French, 75, n. 

Money found, 79. 

Monhegan, 71, n. 

Munch, 218. 

Morton, New English Ca- 
naan, 102, n. 2. 

Mount Desert, 68. 

Mount Hope Bay. 67, 101, n., 
149, n. 2, 153, n. 

Monumenta Juridica, 51, n. 

Monuments, 34, 35. 

Muller, Max, 50, 138, n. 2. 

Nadodd, 19. 
Nantucket, 99, n. 
Nauset, 100, n., 101, n. 
Navarrete, 59, n. 1. 
Nebuchadnezzar, 198. 
Neprass, Hergill, 163. 
Newfoundland, 92, n. 1. 
Newport, 73, n. 



Niall, 16. 

Nicholas V, 26, 32, 54, 162, 

213. 
Nicholas of Lynn, 23, n. 
Nidras, 206. 
Nile, 199. 
Nivaria, 13. 
Noah, 205. 
Noah, M., 15, n. 1. 
Nome, the, 105, n. 
Nordrsetur, 36. 
North American Review, 5, 

64, n. 1, 65, 92, n. 1. 
Northmen, 18; character and 

achievements of, 40 ; 

ships of, 41; rediscover 

America, 44. 
Northmen, in Maine, 75, n. 
Nova Scotia, 106. 
Norombega, 76, n., 201. 
Nutmegs, 106, n. 
Nyja Land, 182, n. 
Nyjafundu-land, 182, n. 1. 

Ohthere, 203, n. 3. 
Odyssey, 11, n. 3. 
Oddson, Eindrid, 30. 
Odin, 20^8. 
O'Halloran, 16, n. 3. 
Olaf, the King, 32, 41, 82. 
Ozsur, 188. 

Papal Letters, 5. 
Olaf, the Saint, 41. 
Old Mill, 73, n. 
Ombrios, 13. 
Orosius, 203, n. 3. 
Orkneys, 23, n., 165. 
Otis, Amos, 98, n. 

Pallium, 206, 219. 
Paley, Dr., 69. 
Palfrey, 61. 
Palma, 13. 
Palnatoki, 171, n. 1. 



328 



Index. 



Papal Letters, 154, n. 

Papey, Island of, 22. 

Papyli, Island of, 22. 

Paradise, 199. 

Parentals, 169. 

Parry, 34, 36. 

Peak of Teneriffe, 13. 

Pellmm, Edward, 73, n. 

Penguin Islands, 182, n. 

Peringskiold, 102, n. 2, 106, n. 

Peter, the Apostle, 31, 198. 

Peyrere, 

Pharaoli Neclio, 11. 

Piienicians, 11, 12. 

Pigot, John, 55, n. 1. 

Plioenius, 16, n. 3. 

Pillars of Hercules, 11. 

Pison, 

Plato, 11. 

Planaria, 13. 

Pliny, 12, 130, n. 3. 

Pluviala, 13. 

Plutarch, 14. 

Plymouth Colonists, 50. 

Point Alderton, 112, n. 

Point Care, 98, n. 1. 

Point Gilbert, 99, n. 1, 125, 

n. 5. 
Pontanus, 25. 
Pontiff, Koman, 206. 
Popliam, George, 106, n. 
Port Haldiman, 97. 
Porto Santo, 15. 
Portsmouth Pocks, 72. 
Pontanus, 56, n., 218. 
Pluviala, 13. 
Prince of Wales, 17, n. 
Prince Henry the Navigator, 

12, 13, 14. 
Prince Madoc, 17, 18, n. 
Pring, 100, n. 
Ptolemy, 56, n., 200, n., 

218. 
Purpurarife, 12. 
Pnrchas, 78, n. 



Queen Margaret, 39. 

Race Point, 111, n. 3. 
Rafn, Prof., 6, 16, 36, 57, 68. 
Ralf the Limerick merchant, 

26, 162, 165. 
Rask, Professor, 
Rampolla, 30. 
Raudulf, 

Red -beard; see Thor. 
Reikiavik, 21. 
Riant, 208. 
Rhode Island, 115, n. 
Robin, the, 129, n. 
Rimbegla, 136, n. 1. 
Rollo, 41. 
Rome, 115, n. 3. 
Round Table, 24. 
Runic Letters, on an oar, 39; 

Age of Alphabet, 47. 
Ruins, in Greenland, 33. 
Runolfson, Bishop Thorlak, 

148, 153. 
Russia, 199. 
Rymer, 52, n. 

Sais, Priests of, 11. 

Santarem, 199, n. 3. 

Sifimund the Wise, 185. 

Sagadahoc, 106, n. 

Sagas, 44. 

St. Asaph, Bishop of, 23. 

St. Augustine, 136, 7i. 

St. Brenden, 18, 7i. 162. 

St. Columba, 15. 

St. John, 199, 207. 

St. Martin. Yivien, 12. 

St. John, 69. 

St. Paul, 69. 

St. Patrick, 25. 

St Thomas, 15, 198. 

St. Yincent, Bory, 14. 

Salmon, 101. 

Saxon, 7. 

Schoning, 165, n. 



Index. 



229 



Schoolcraft, Henry, 70, n. 

Scotland, 183. 

Scota, 16, n. 3. 

Sea of Darkness, 10. 

Seaconnet, 127. 

Seat, Episcopal, 185. 

Seat Posts, 81, 87. 

Sebosus, 12. 

See, Apostolic, 208, 212. 

Seitoriiis, 12. 

Setstakkar, 20, ?^. 

Shakespere, 65. 

Shea, J. G., 60, n. 1. 

Shawanese Indians, 165, n. 

Shields, 128, 130, 143. 

Ships, 41, 43. 

Sigurd, King, 29, 185. 

Sighvatson, Erling, 35. 

Skafting, 42. 

Skalholt, Bishop of, 214. 

Skardfa, Bioernvon, 38. 

Skeleton in armor, 74, ^i., 

75, n. 
Skialdespilder, Eyvind, 47. 
Skolnus, 55. 
Skrffillings, 33, n, 88, 113, n. 

3, 134, 150. 
Slaves, 126. 
Sloop Mary, 126, n., 142, 

71. 2. 
Slut Bush, 99, n. 
SmasUingar, 113, ^i. 3. 
Smith, Captain John, 98, n., 

112, 71. ; Joshua Toul- 

min, 114, ^. 3; Mr. 

Philip, 118, 71. 
Snaebiorn, killed, 8. 
Snow, 146. 
Snowland, 19. 
Sling's, 133. 
Snorre, the Priest, 168. 
Sorysbi, Henry, 55. 
South Islands, 93. 
Sokke, 29. 
Sokke, Einar, 29. 



Solon, 11. 

Sjjae-wife, 83, 7i. 

Speculum Regali, 44, 183. 

Standish, Miles, 102, ?r. 2. 

Standard, London, 17, n. 

Statins Sebosus, 12. 

Stilicho, 16. 

Stone Age, 134, 149. 

Strabo, 12. 

Sturleson, 

Straumfiord, 142. 

Styrbiorn, 171. 

Stream Bay, 137, 139, 143. 

Stow, 52. 

St. James Day, 36. 

Stuf , the Skald, 48. 

Superstition, 96, ^. 3. 

Tacitus, 17, 7i. 

Taunton, 70, w. 

Tegner, 124, ti. 

Thaliessin, 24. 

Thor, 20, 105, ^., 144. 

Thor's Day, 127, n. 5. 

Thorberg, 42. 

Thorbrandson, 133. 

Thorbjorg, 83, n. 

Thorer the Eastman, 115. 

Thorfinn, Earl of the Ork- 
neys, 166. 

Thorhall the Hunter, 124, 
127, 135, 140, 143. 

Thorhild, her church, 28. 

Thorlakus, Bishop, 

Thorodd, 167. 

Thorstein Black, 116. 

Theopompus, 10. 

Thurid, of Froda, 167. 

Timber cut, 106. 

Tiverton Rocks, 72. 

Torfseus, 29; works of, 35, 
71. 2, 60, 77, 7i. 2. 

Tradition, Indian, 72, n. 

Traditions, 15. 

Truro, 106, ti. 



230 



Index. 



Tyrians, 15. 
Tyrker, 97, 105. 
Thyle, Ultima, 56. 
Thorgier, Red, 78. 

Ulf Krage, 87. 
Unipeds, 136. 
JJv^ge, 138, 146. 
Ultitna Thule, 10. 

Yalldidia, 138, 147. 

Valhalla, 139, n. 

Yalgerda, 151. 

Vathelldi, 138, 146. 

Vatican Archives, 31, n. 

Vatican Library, 5. 

Vardlokur, 84, n. 

Verrazano, 38, n., 113, n., 
166, ^i-. 

Viga Glum, 44, n., 49. 

Vigdis Mars, 34. 

Vikings, 44, n. 

Vilgerdson, Flokke, 51. 

Villehardouin, 49. 

Vinland, 60, 104, 107, 108, 
121, 141, 185. 

Vining, E. P., 59, n. 2. 

Vivien de St. Martin, 12. 

Voyages — Eric the Red, 15, 
25; Biarne, 65; Leif's, 
27, 61, 85; Thorstein's, 
115; Karlsefne's, 124- 
129; Freydis, 154; 
Helge, 154; Finboge, 
154; Marson's, 26, 162; 
Asbrandson's, 167, 170; 
Giidlaugson's, 177; no- 
tices of, 180. 



Wafer, 163, n. 
Waldemar, 171, n. 
Walkendorf, Archbishop 

Eric, 39. 
Webb, Dr., 71, n. 
Webb's Island, 99, n. 
Welsh, The, 17, n. 
Wesley Family, 120, n. 
Westmann Islands, 53. 
Weston, Richard, 54. 
Whales, 127, 143. 
Wheat, 103, 123, 127, 147. 
White, the W. L., 183, 

n. 1. 
White-man's land, 147, 159, 

162. 
Williams, John, 17. 
Williamson, 75, n. 
Wine, 107, n. 1. 
Winland, 107, n. 
Winsor, Justin, 16, n. 2; 

History, 59, n. 2. 
Winthrop, Prof., 70, n. 
Wonder -strand, 99, n. 141. 
Woodrow, 68, n. 
Wormius, 38, 
Worm Sea, 138, 147. 
Writing Rock; see Dighton 

Rock. 
Wytfliet, 56, n. 

York, Archbishop of, 52. 
Youth, Fountain of, 10. 
Yule, 123. 
Yucatan, 9, n. 

Zeno, 55, n; map, 55, 218. 



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